Critical Skills For Sales Leaders - Sales Performance Coaching For People Development

Sales Performance Coaching is a function of 4 core practices of people development

1. Tuition This involves providing the salesperson with the direction, instruction and the knowledge they require in an effort to help them understand what they need to know in order to change their current approach.

2. Consultation involves identifying and analysing the specific issue or situation at hand and assist the sales person to clearly define the goal and map out a plan for their accomplishment

3. Coaching involves helping the salesperson to effect a change by self discovering the answers and thereby make adjustments to their current behaviour or approach. The Sales Performance Coach does this by providing them with regular guidance, feedback, insight and direction to ensure successful execution

4. Performance Management This involves ensuring the salesperson stays on track and holding them accountable to the measurable performance activities required to achieve the goal.

In addition to applying the above 4 core practices of people development there are 8 steps you as the sales leader need to take to implement and become an effective Sales Performance Coach:

The 8 Step Sales Performance Coaching Process

1. An execution focused plan.

Ensure you have a clear and well laid out tactical sales plan to achieve the required sales goals. The plan needs to specifically detail: who is doing what, by when, how, and with what resources.

2. Set clear performance expectations.

Before you as a sales leader can expect your salespeople to deliver what you expect of them, your first step is to be absolutely sure that, in your own mind and on paper, that you have clearly established what it is specifically that you expect of them. Once you have determined what you expect, now you need to have the expectation discussion with each of your salespeople.

3. Identify core behaviors for development.

Identify the key behaviors you and your individual salesperson have determined to be lacking in order for them to meet your expectations and execute their sales plan. These will provide you with the basis for and focus of your one on one coaching.

There are 5 Mission Critical Skills of Outstanding Salespeople. If you want your sales team to produce 20% more, the question you have to ask yourself is...are they 20% better?

Extensive research has identified the five Mission Critical Selling Skills that a sales professional must master to effectively move beyond their current limitations and to achieve your sales goals. When understood and mastered, these five skills will dramatically help you to increase your sales productivity and sell more, more often.

The 5 Mission Critical Skills of Outstanding Salespeople are:

1. Time and Self Management

2. Business Development

3. Diagnostic Acuity

4. Engage All Parties

5. Wrap Up

4. Set aside quality time weekly to debrief the week that was and the week that's coming up.

The fact is, that if you will invest the time to conduct a weekly debrief the week that was and the week that's coming up, over the next ninety days, you will completely turn your sales around.

5. Set specific behavioral goals, measure progress regularly

Change is a process, not an event and therefore you cannot expect to send your salespeople on a training course and have them instantly change behavior. Once you have determined the specific dysfunctional behaviors and strategies that are road-blocking an individual salesperson, set joint goals to improve and change the areas of greatest impact.

6. Collect Sales person behavioral data by engaging in joint sales calls and provide honest and data specific feedback.

70% of learning happens on the job. The most effective method for you to observe behavioral change is to witness the individual salesperson perform in their role. By careful observation you can gather specific data to provide them with accurate feedback. Now you can effectively challenge and guide them to improve their sales performance and behavior.

7. Offer training where applicable

- Demonstrate the 'ideal" way. Provide the salesperson with resources, books, CD's, online tools, seminars and workshops to accelerate their learning and reinforce your message.

8. Follow up; follow up; follow up.

There is one skill that as a sales leader you absolutely have to develop. If you haven't done so already, this skill will greatly determine your success or failure as a manager of others. This incredibly simple and yet powerful skill is the ability to effectively follow up. When your sales team knows what needs to be done and when it needs to be done by and when they can ABSOLUTELY count on you to follow up on their commitments to you....then you will achieve results that up and until now you have only dreamed of!

As one of Australia's leading authorities and coaches in sales management, Ian Segail has been involved in the coaching, training and development of sales managers and salespeople for over two decades.

Drawing on 25 years of experience in sales, sales management and leading an HR and training team, Ian brings a strong dose of fiscal reality and practicality to his works as a Sales Performance Coach.

Engaging directly with business owners and both novice and experienced sales managers alike, across a wide variety of industries and selling disciplines, the focus of Ian's work is to transform sales results for companies by improving sales management practices.

Ian is the author of "Bulletproof Your Sales Team - The 5 Keys To Turbo Boosting Your Sales Team's Results" and a number of business articles, business reports and white papers including "The fish stinks from the head!" and "Why Sales Training Doesn't Work." Ian has an insatiable hunger for studying selling and people management and has passionately pursued answers to the question "How come some people can sell and most can't?"

He can be reached via http://www.iansegail.com

Read Ian's latest free report - "The 7 Most Costly Mistakes Sales Managers Make" here http://www.bulletproofyoursalesteam.com [http://bulletproofyoursalesteam.com/free-report/7costlymistakes.html]

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How to Increase Sales? Focus on Sales Development Training

To get the best sales results out of your training investment, a sales development training program needs to be focused on your product's, or service's, unique value proposition. What unique value or benefit does your product or service have for customers? Ensure that your training program provides information that your sales staff can use in sales planning and sales calls.

Customize the training program to focus on the specific needs of your unique sales staff; by customizing for your own staff you will increase training effectiveness. All training needs to be developed with specific objectives in mind:


Do you need to train newly hired, but experienced, sales people? For example, for newly recruited sales employees (even experienced ones), it is important to ramp up their effectiveness by training them on your products or services. Review the unique characteristics of your products or services. What benefits do they provide to your customers? What is different about your product or service, from your competition's products or services?
Do you have a sales and marketing kit to give to new sales employees? For example: product literature; information from, and about, suppliers; the industry; your competitors; and your business. Include a summary of your business plan and strategy, as well as your marketing plan and your marketing mix strategies.
Do you need to train existing sales staff to be more effective, to close more sales, to be more successful at prospecting, to improve presentation skills, or more? What type of sales performance training do you need to develop and provide?
Do you need to train your sales staff on changes to existing products or services? Or to train on newly developed and newly introduced products or services?


 

Sales development training will help your business increase sales; it is an important tool in effectively managing and developing successful sales staff. Training needs to be a continual process; it starts when you hire new sales people and continues as new products or services are added or improved, and as the market and your competitors adapt.

Business owners and managers often behave as if sales people know everything they need to know (perhaps because they act like they know most everything) and therefore they often overlook the importance of continually training sales staff. When hiring experienced sales people, you expect them to be trained and capable of selling. However, to improve the effectiveness of newly hired, yet experienced, sales people, you need to provide product training that highlights the features, advantages and benefits (FAB) of your products. Alternatively, you may have to re-train your experienced sales people to sell in a way that more closely aligns to your changing business.

Training needs to introduce changing sales techniques and tactics; as the market changes or your products change, your sales approach also needs to change. Training for inexperienced sales people is necessary both on a product knowledge level and on a sales skills level. Focus first on basic sales performance and sales skills training; then work on training and developing advanced sales techniques. Your training plan needs to complement and support your business and marketing plan, your strategy, and your business operations.

Put effectiveness measures in place for your training program. For example,

Prior to initiating the training:


Record the number of calls your sales staff makes (daily, weekly or monthly), by employee.
Track the number of quotes or proposal requests (if appropriate for your business).
Record the sales by employee; profit per employee; value added sales per employee.

After training starts, set review dates (usually after at least 8 to 10 customer contacts) and compare to the performance prior to training. On a continual basis, track progress against the pre-training benchmarks. If the training results in improvement, continue with your program.  If there is no improvement, change the training.  Keep focused on your goals and make sure the training and sales staff know what the goals are.  Sales people are typically very results focused and motivated.

To engage your sales staff in training, make sure they understand the connection between learning and earning more income (if paid sales commissions based on sales volume).

For those small business owners and sales managers who feel you do not have time to train sales staff, understand that your investment of time and resources in training will pay off by increasing the effectiveness and performance of your sales staff. If you do not know how to build a sales development training program, consider hiring a sales training consultant or specialist to build a custom training program for your business.

Relate sales development training to a focus on why people buy and how product differentiation can help increase sales.

Kris Bovay is the owner of Voice Marketing Inc., the business and marketing services company and owner of the small business resource website, http://www.more-for-small-business.com

Kris has more than 25 years experience in successfully managing and leading large, medium and small businesses; businesses that she has worked with have grown by more than 30% in sales in the first two years. Use Kris' experience to help you manage and lead your business. Copyright 2008 Voice Marketing Inc.

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Sales Development Training and How to Learn Sales Skills That Could Change Your Life

Sales development training to increase your sales skills is a great investment. But if you just learn sales skills, and don't know how to put them into action, you won't get the lifestyle changes you want. To make it work, and get results, sales training needs a plan that's achievable, practical, and that has worked for others like you.

Do you see other sales people achieving more than you? While you're struggling to make your monthly payments they're buying new homes, expensive holidays, and great looking cars. Do these successful colleagues get attention and recognition from other people, people you would like to notice you? You have thought about learning sales skills to try and increase your sales results and your income. You may have downloaded some sales skill training, or been on sales training courses, but you're still stuck in a rut and struggling to earn the rich rewards that a sales career should offer.

Everyone in sales now has access to sales training and can learn sales skills that could change their lifestyle. The Internet is full of a wide range of professional sales training and free sales training courses. The effective sales skill training that does cost money gives you free examples and information on the training, so you can make an educated decision before buying, and the investment cost is very reasonable. For a few dollars you can download a sales training course and start taking actions today that could completely change your life.

Anyone with average intelligence, and the right attitude, can learn sales skills that can change their lifestyle. So how come there are so many sales people just plodding along, stuck in a rut, and running out of time to achieve their goals and live the lifestyle they want. What makes a difference to so many career sales people's lives is knowing how to put the sales training into actions. So when you decide that today's the day that your life changes, and you are going to get serious about sales development training and putting it into action, here's a sales development training plan to get you started on achieving your desires and dreams.

Find the sales training that's right for you

Click around the Internet and find the right sales skill training for you and your sales career. Consider if your customers buy because of their feelings and emotions, or do they make a buying decision based on logic. What's the value of your average sale? The sales process for a low value high volume product will be different to the sales techniques used for a low volume high value sale. Making money from repeat business sales will require different sales skills to a one off market. You want selling skills that are customer focused and avoid feelings of buyer's remorse to succeed in the repeat sales marketplace.

When you have a clear picture of your sale, the sale process, and how you close the sale, start clicking around the Internet. Look for sales development training that offers ways to increase sales by learning sales skills that match your style of selling. It's no good buying sales training on killer sales closes if your sales are based on repeat business from customers that feel valued. Retail sales skills are different to B2B sales techniques. Successful direct sales people use selling techniques that suit their market and their product. Look at free sales training courses and get all the information you can to decide which is right for you. Then invest in sales skill training.

Now start to use the sales skills to change your life

Once you've found the right sales development training, you have to use it to gain from it. It's no good just looking at it. You have to turn the sales training on the screen into actions. Take the sales skill training and transfer it into actions you are going to take. Write them in your diary and make them time bound. Have one sales action for each day, because you know you can complete that. Each action will build upon the one from the previous day.

For example, you start sales skill training to build a new sales introduction. The sales training says your first line should be an introduction of you, and your business. It must be short and to the point with no long winded speech about you or the product. This is your first action for day one. Write the new first line of for your sales introduction. Then day two could be to add a reason for seeing the buyer to your sales introduction. At the end of the first week you have a brand new sales introduction and you're ready to start work on the other sales stages. And you are not becoming bored with the sales training, or finding you haven't got the time to compete it.

The difference between successful sales people and the rest is not the sales skill training they receive, and it's not even their level of sales ability. It's whether they take actions or just sit back and let sales commission slip away. In most markets if you don't sell to a prospective customer some other sales person will. If you don't take actions today to increase your sales with sales development training, you are giving money to some other sales person. Perhaps it's one of those you have seen succeeding, and buying new cars and a bigger house. Join them now by taking action today. Look for sales development training now by clicking around the Internet, and go get that diary. Or, stay as you are and tomorrow will be the same as today.

Hi, I'm Stephen Craine, a working sales manager and trainer for a major UK company. If you want to see the sales training I present to my working sales teams then start your search for sales skill training at http://www.sales-training-sales-tips.com/sales-skills.html and click around the site.

All the sales training presented on my website has been tested and proved by working sales people in real sales situations. There are no acronyms, buzz words, or complicated techniques to market training courses. The focus is on practical sales training that achieves results.

On the website I offer pages on all aspects of selling techniques and sales skills. The sales information is free and gives you ideas and sales techniques to try out and use for yourself. You will also discover free sales training courses that will show you how to increase your sales and change your life through your sales career.

If you really want to make a difference you can invest in sales training, presented in workbooks, and easy to put into action. How much will these professional sales training courses cost you, open http://www.sales-training-sales-tips.com/sales-and-training-solution.html and find out.

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Collection Development - A Review of Some Related Literature

Some major issues in collection development

Ifidon (1990) focused attention on thirteen university libraries in developing countries and identified their purpose or mission. Books, quick service collections and peripheral materials serve the course work of under graduates. Theses and dissertations, staff publication, audio-visual items for faculty specialists serve post-graduates and researchers. Light reading materials and newspapers enhance personal self development. Special collections also exist to meet the needs of the university in which they are situated. For example, the newspaper collection at Fourah Bay College Library, University of Sierra Leone contains invaluable grey materials which could not be available elsewhere. The newspapers in this collection are collected periodically and sent to the Bindery Department for hard covers. These are eventually shelved as books in the library and the newspaper collection could be traced as far back as 1954.

Bloomfield (1988) outlined what are considered as the major issues in collection development. The six identified issues include the identification of the purpose of mission either of the library itself or its parent body, the formulation of specific library strategies and policies for implementing the collection policy statement, the division of the budget and its consequent problems, monitoring and resource sharing. It is taken for granted that these issues include the assumption that libraries do not have sufficient funds. Formally, the University of Sierra Leone (which currently comprises Fourah Bay College, College of Medicine & Allied Health Sciences and the Institute of Public Administration & Management) budgeted 6% for its libraries but the economic situation from the late 1980s onwards forced this support to be converted to collegiate funding. Unfortunately, the administration often stresses that there are many other competing demands which frustrate the level of support libraries eventually receive.

Gyeszly (1990), Harrell (1990) and Smith (1990) compared and analyzed statistically the collection growth of the Sterling and C. Evans Library, Texas A and M University. Student enrolment, faculty size, materials budget, library funds and expenditures, acquisition of monographs and serials are discussed. Libraries which are actively engaged in collection development are in a dilemma to deal with increasing material prices at a time of decreasing state-supported appropriations. Collection development policies in each department must be carefully written and reviewed to address the needs of different departments. Unfortunately, several libraries do not have well written collection development policies. A corresponding effect is the growth of some subject areas in libraries at the expense of others.

Kelly (1991) focused attention on funding patterns in academic libraries and collection budget allocation methods. It is important to use various techniques in reductions in the budget. Forecasting models and allocation formulae previously used at Laurentian University are detailed. Collection development methods and allocation formulae that work very well in times of increasing budgets should be re-examined when budgets are cut or even remain the same. The author however failed to realize that in Third World University Libraries budgets hardly remain the same. The general trend is a gradual decline which frustrates growth of these libraries.

Collection development policies

Futas (1984) examined a survey conducted of academic and public libraries policies in relation to collection development. Ten academic library collection development policies as well as several selected portions of library policies like goals and objectives, selection, collection maintenance, and intellectual freedom are outlined. Finance is and has always been an issue of concern in the policies. The initial practice of having a policy on what percentage will be spent on what type of material gives place to generalizations and formulae. One implication is that policies do not have to change every year with a new budget. The results of the survey could be safely extended to other academic libraries in the developed nations.

Cabutey-Adodoadgi (1988) focused on the development of library collections in a developing country like Ghana and attributed the poor and unbalanced collections to the inability of libraries to draw up clear cut policies. The ideal however is to evolve a collection development policy that will be based on key factors like library budget, selectivity, user needs and evaluation. Library collections of developing countries, if anything, should reflect balance. Unfortunately, the situation falls far short of the expectations.

Lundu (1989) and Lungu (1989) noted that a fundamental problem in relation to acquisition of scientific literature in Zambia is the lack of clearly-cut collection development policies. Apart from the University of Zambia library, the rest of the libraries they evaluated lack clear-cut collection development policies. The need for collection development becomes paramount if acquired materials should be planned to be relevant to needs and cost effective in relation to limited financial resources available for the book industry in developing countries.

Approval plans

Leonhardt (1990) presented approval plans as one of the most written-about, talked about, misunderstood and oversold aspect of librarianship. The sad realization is that in spite of all the discussions, professional librarians have different views in relation to their name, value and administration. Although they have an inherent value in collection building, they are not a universal remedy for collection development and budget woes. Attempts by librarians to run broad subject-based approval plans without the necessary funds also defeat their purpose. The danger is the less there is to spend, as is the case in most developing countries, the more they leave selection to the vendor.

Likeness (1990) noted that reputable place approval plans have in libraries. Among advantages outlined are option of return, limiting books received from a group of publishers from notifications rather than actual delivery, and blocking out of series or publishers already on standing order. Foreign language materials approval plans are also discussed. While some librarians may not want faculty to be involved in the approval process, many who use such plans involve them in the evaluation of approval books.

Bostic (1991) stressed the important role or gathering plans, in which library materials are supplied according to a predetermined profile and unwanted documents returned, play in the procurement of documents for the library. Advantages include availability of bigger accounts, saving of staff time, a golden opportunity to examine what should be purchased, a sharpening of the library's focus on its informational support mission, allowing existing collections to be strengthened and providing the means of collection evaluation and assessment. These notwithstanding, there are normally gaps in coverage, slow delivery, duplication of material, difficulty in claiming and loss of budget control.

Somers (1991) compared approval plan profiles of two academic libraries, University of Georgia and Tulane University. Although each had vastly different profiles and completely different reactions, they positively view the approval plan as a method of collection development. The individual library profile which determines what is to be sent is at the heart of each plan. In spite of the unique circumstances on each campus, the profile is not only defined wishes but also set expectations.

Technique of evaluating library collections

Ford (1988) noted that in spite of initial opposition to the Aikinson Report which states the time limit stock should be discarded and acquired, the grounds for opposition to some of the proposals are being whittled away. Three choices with regard to the criteria used for identifying materials to be weeded out include category, objective and judgment. Five main types of the so-called 'objective' criteria include usage, obsolescence, age, death and decay. Although most libraries undertake weeding as a result of special circumstances, some do weed systematically and others are about to embark on a systematic programme.

Jones (1988) observed that the management of stock should be clearly seen within the context of the overall management of the organization. Analysis of borrowers and their use of different categories of stock are very important in stock management.

Principles used to determine whether to retain a material include age, popularity, accuracy and relevance of information and sound professional judgment. This is not a proposal to take decision-making from librarians and to give it centrally-based specialists.

Matheson (1988) firmly believed that co-operation and resource sharing are forward steps in the face of higher publishing outputs and declining budgets for collection development. Concentrating on the background to co-operatives initiatives in collection development between major research libraries in Scotland, it is reasonable to conclude that acquisitions budgets fail to retain their purchasing power because of the lack of true co-operation among libraries.

Sizer (1988) noted that academic libraries are under tremendous pressure in demonstrating that they are providing value for money received from their parent bodies. Value for money is concerned with optimizing economy in the acquisition of resources, efficiency in their use and effectiveness in the achievement of objectives. Accountability is not only measures in financial terms. If a library develops an integrated process of planning, resource allocation, budgetary planning and control, it should aim at achieving value for money demonstrated within and outside the university.

Williams (1988) admitted that although much of a librarian's training involves selection, acquisition, storage and exploitation of resources, the ultimate stage, stock relegation, receives relatively little attention. If approached positively, the weeding of materials could lead to an enhancement of user satisfaction as well as an ultimate increase in operational efficiency and effectiveness.

A brief analysis of the Slote method which a spine-mark technique to help individuals to identify materials for weeding is followed by an examination of reasons for justifying its use as an ideal approach of weeding library collections. The above notwithstanding, it is often a very difficult task to meaningfully select potential materials for weeding particularly so when the faculty fails to co-operate with the library in identifying them.

Woodward (1988) reported on the project sponsored by the British National Bibliography Research Fund aimed at designing models to evaluate different kinds of journal provision in the light of possibilities offered by the electronic transmission of journal articles. The Loughborough research clearly showed that a complete switch to electronic article transmission would be disadvantageous to both librarian and user. In brief, overall acquisition costs would be higher, funds would become complex as electronic article provision could not be financed in advance and the library user would suffer loss of quick and easy access of material.

Osburn (1990) identified practices that either impede or are likely to impede freedom of access to information. One such is censorship. Identification is one step to problem solving. Basic principles behind collection management - value and demand, diversity and balance, conservator and innovator are identified. As selection is the heartbeat of collection development, so are criteria for selection important to collection development policies. Allocation and budget justification are plans for action which, though related to policy are separate from it. The importance of collection evaluation is therefore seen in the revision of policy and of financial planning.

Taher (1990) and Kumar (1990) analyzed an American studies collection, taking into consideration growth and use patterns and highlighted the trends and prospects in collection development and evaluation of user needs in India. Two methods, descriptive and analytical are utilized to determine whether or not a collection is balanced. Such a study of collection development and evaluation is of tremendous importance to one's understanding of existing needs to predict the future.

Tjoumas (1990) and Blake (1990) did comparative studies on collection evaluation which provided an inventory of possible techniques developed to assess library holdings. The two approaches which dominated were the impressionistic approach which is extremely subjective and the checklist method which requires a certified list of sources identifying titles essential to support an academic programme. Identifying collection evaluation techniques which are cost effective, easy to implement and accurate would provide librarians with valuable instruments to prepare both internal and external reports.

Wachel (1992) and Shreaves (1992) noted the strong alliance between acquisition and collection development to citing the Iowa libraries as examples. The re-organization at Iowa which shifted the administration of acquisitions from technical services to collection management was a very positive one since it reduced possibilities for conflict inherent in the old administrative structure. Co-operation is the watchword. The action of acquiring confirms a link with collection management and such a relationship is a potential linkage.

Summary

A role of collection development is not only to plan a stock acquisition programme but to make it relevant to immediate and future needs of the users. Born (1993) rightly observed that "a closer co-operation has developed between departments as librarians assess and evaluate library collections to ensure the current and future needs of students and scholars are met" (p.125). It is also evident that most University library collections in developing countries are under-developed as a result of the lack of clearly stated acquisition and collection development policies. The reverse is true of most university libraries in developed countries. Co-operation and resource sharing are two positive steps in the face of declining budgets.

Bibliography

Bloomfield, B.C. (1988). "Collection development: key issues". In S. Corral(ed). Collection

development: options for effective management. London: Taylor Graham. pp.3-16.

Born, K. (1993). "The role of the serials vendor in the collection assessment and evaluation process".

Journal of Library Administration. 19(2), pp.125-138.

Bostic, M.J. (1991). "Approval acquisitions and vendor relations: an overview". The Acquisitions

Librarian. 6(1), pp. 129-144.

Cabutey-Adodoadji, E. (1988). "Collection Development: a hypothetical perspective". Ghana

Library Journal. 6(1), pp.20-30.

Ford, G. (1988). "A review of relegation practice". In In S. Corral(ed). Collection development: options

for effective management. London: Taylor Graham. pp.71-81.

Futas, E. (1984). Library acquisition: policies and procedures. Arizona: Oryx Press.

Gyeszly, S.D. et al. (1990) "Collection growth and evaluation at Texas A and M University, 1978 and

1988: a comparative statistical analysis". Collection Management. 12 (3-4), pp.152-172.

Ifidon, B.I. (1990). Collection development in African university libraries: challenges and frustrations.

Indiana: African Studies Program.

Jones, J.H. (1990). "The Hertfordshire method: an approach to book stock management". In In S.

Corral(ed). Collection development: options for effective management. London: Taylor Graham.

pp.95-101.

Kelly, G.J. (1991). "Using an economic approach to improve budget forecasting techniques, collection,

allocation methods and library budgeting decisions". The Acquisitions Librarian. 5(11), pp.191-213.

Leonhardt, T.W. (1990). "Collection development outside the ARL: a newcomer's perspective".

Collection Management. 12(1-2), pp.11-14.

Likeness, C.S. (1990). "The creative use and acquisitions mechanisms in the college library. Collection

Management. 12(1-2), pp.3-10.

Lundu and Lungu, M.C. & Lungu, C.M.B. (1989). "Acquisition of scientific literature in developing

countries: Zambia". Information Development. 5(2), pp.99-107.

Matheson, A. (1988). "Co-operative approaches in Scotland". In S. Coral (ed). Collection development:

options for effective management. London: Taylor Graham. pp. 119-130.

Osburn, C.B. (1990). "Impact of collection management practices on intellectual freedom". Library

Trends. 39(1-2). pp. 168-182.

Sizer, J. (1988). "Value for money: a framework for development". In S. Coral (ed). Collection

development: options for effective management. London: Taylor Graham. pp. 132-140.

Somers, S.W. (1991). Book selection: principles and practice. London: Library Association Publishing.

Taher, M & Kumar, V.M. (1990). "Collection development and evaluation at the American Research

Centre, Hydembad". Collection Management. 12(1-2), pp. 125-146.

Tjoumas, R. & Blake, V.L.P. (1990). "Counteracting at the divergence between professional

accreditation and the evaluation of library science collections". Collection Management. 12(1-2),

pp.43-59.

Wachel, K. & Shreeves, E. (1992). "An alliance between acquisitions and collection management".

Library Acquisitions: Practice and Theory. 16(1), pp.383-389.

Williams, R. (1988). "Choosing the Slote method of weeding library collections". In S. Coral (ed).

Collection development: options for effective management. London: Taylor Graham. pp. 88-94.

Woodward, H. (1994). "The impact of electronic information on serials collection management". IFLA

Journal. 20(1), pp.35-45.

AUTHOR SIGNATURE
Oliver L.T. Harding, who obtained his GCE O & A Levels from the Sierra Leone Grammar School and the Albert Academy respectively, is currently Senior & Acting Librarian of Fourah Bay College, University of Sierra Leone. He is a part time lecturer at the Institute of Library, Information & Communication Studies (INSLICS), Fourah Bay College and the Extension Programme at the Evangelical College of Theology (T.E.C.T) at Hall Street, Brookfields; Vice President of the Sierra Leone Association of Archivists, Librarians & Information Scientists (SLAALIS); a member of the American Theological Library Association (ATLA) and an associate of the Chartered Institute of Library & Information Professionals (CILIP). His certificates, secular and sacred, include: a certificate and diploma from the Freetown Bible Training Centre; an upper second class B.A. Hons. Degree in Modern History (F.B.C.); a post-graduate diploma from the Institute of Library Studies (INSLIBS, F.B.C) a masters degree from the Institute of Library, Information & Communication Studies (INSLICS, F.B.C.) and a masters degree in Biblical Studies from West Africa Theological Seminary, affiliate of the University of Nigeria, Nsukka, where he won the prize for academic excellence as the Best Graduating Student in 2005. Oliver, a writer, musician and theologian, is married (to Francess) with two children (Olivia & Francis).

Email: oltharding@yahoo.com

Mobile: 232-2233-460-330

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ADHD - Review of Literature - Effects on Development Within Family, Education, and Social Systems

Attention Deficit Hyper Activity Disorder according to Singh (2002) is a developmental disorder that is brain based and most often affects children. This developmental disorder can be characterized as a disorder in which affects ones self control; primary aspects include difficulty with attention, impulse control, and activity levels usually diagnosed prior to the age of 7yrs. of age (Willoughby, 2003).

There are primarily three sub-types of ADHD. Inattentive sub-type 1 is ADHD which those who manifest inattention without the presence of hyperactivity and impulsivity (Barkley, 2005). There is also ADHD sub-type 2 with symptomolgy related to hyperactivity and impulsivity (Barkley, 2005). Finally there is ADHD combined sub-type (Visser & Lesesne, 2005). For the purpose of my paper, I will utilize information that represents all subtypes in various degrees and the affects of these difficulties upon the individual, educational, family, and social development as well as issues of social justice and cultural issues for those children who suffer from this disorder.

Historically the modern symptoms of ADHD were first identified (Barkley 1996, Rafalovich 2001, & Stubbe 2001), by English physician George Still in 1902 (Neufeld & Foy, 2006). Rafalovich (2001), explains that in a series of historical events from 1917-1918 in North America that led to an encephalitis outbreak there was a dramatic increase in research of characteristics that are similar to modern day ADHD symptomology. Through out the early years of research there was even research and investigations into medical conditions which promoted swelling in certain aspects of the brain, which many believe led to impulsivity and hyperactivity (Stubbe, 2000). As research evolved so did the diagnostic criteria for the disorder; shaping identifiable factors believed to contribute to the causation of ADHD (Barkley, 2005). Physiologically, there seems to be less dopamine and nor-epinephrine within the brains of those with ADHD and four genes that regulate dopamine have been identified as ADHD causal agents; however a definite causal agent has not been confirmed (Barkley, 2005). Brain activity is considerably lower in the pre-frontal lobe regions in those with ADHD and there is also decrease in blood flow (Hans, Henricksen & Bruhn, 1984), (Barkley, 2005). According to Barkley (2005), psychological characteristics of ADHD are that it is about the "behavioral inhibition." These children do not benefit from what may happen later based upon what they do now; which can be compared to a "time near sightedness", (Barkley, 2005). They have difficulty identifying their past, preparing for the future, organizing, scheduling, and working independently, with social and occupational issues (Barkley, 2005). It is these difficulties when intermingled with the development of the individual that could clearly cause great difficulties especially when enrolled in formalized schooling and onward into the demands of school and adulthood.

The prevalence rates regarding the diagnosis of ADHD has been from ranges of 4 % to 18 % depending upon the community, types of populations, and areas of analysis (Visser & Lesesne, 2005). ADHD is one of the most common childhood disorders with 2.5 million children with this disorder (Barkley, 2005). Estimates show (Biederman, 1996), that nearly 6 % of boys and 1.5 % of girls have ADHD (Singh, 2002). It cost nearly 3.3 billion dollars to medically treat ADHD every year in the United States (Visser & Lesesne, 2005). Currently causation factors under consistent follow up according to Barkley (2005) include;

1. Genetics

2. Premature Birth

3. Traumatic Brain Injury

4. Spine and Brain Infections

5. Early exposure to substances during pregnancy

6. Early exposure to lead

7. Less blood flow and lower brain activity

Because ADHD is a representation of physical imperfections within the brain and actually manifests a decrease of activity in the pre-frontal lobe regions; certain treatment options with amphetamines, stimulants and non-amphetamines have been utilized to increase brain activity (Barkley, 2005). The size and anomalies within the brain have been verified and examined through many technological processes such as Positron Emission Tomography and MRI scanning (Vance & Luk, 2000). Other physical abnormalities of development according to Barkley (2005), include appearances of slight deformities including; longer than average index finger, third toe that is longer than second toe, ears that are slightly lower upon the head, no earlobes or a furrowed tongue. Up to 80% of children suffering with ADHD will continue to struggle with this disorder into adolescents and as many as 50 to 60 percent will continue to struggle into adulthood (Barkley, 2005). With the affects upon a child's school, family, and social environments a large emotional toll can be identified. Emotionally, children can feel isolated, angry, guilty, frustrated and many other emotions due to the disruption of relationships, opportunities and lack of clear decision making skills (Barkley, 2005). Many of these children can become depressed and exhibit anxiety (Barkley, 2005). Many affective behaviors include stubbornness, defiance and at times can be verbally or physically violent to others (Barkley, 2005).

According to Barkley (2005) nearly 57% of preschool children are likely to be rated as inattentive and over-reactive by their parents up to the age of four. As many as 40% according to Barkley (2005), may have these problems for up to three to six months, concerning parents and teachers. According to Lavigne, Gibbons, Christoffel, Rosenbaum and Binns (1996), however, it is estimated that 2% of preschool children truly meet the criteria for ADHD, and (Biederman, 1996), clarified that possibly 10 % of all children meet diagnostic criteria for ADHD (Singh, 2002). Barkley clearly indicates that the earlier the symptoms of ADHD appear and the length of time they last in childhood will determine the severity of its course and prognosis (Barkley, 2005). Individually there are many distressing problems for children suffering from this disorder. Some features that Barkley (2005) indicate are important to recognize as the individual child develops into school age include;

1. An emergence of high demanding ness of preschool age

2. Critical directive behavior by parents to control circumstances

3. Problems reported by preschool / formal school staff regarding child's behavior

4. Problems with learning and reading

5. Decisions to withhold a child an educational grade

6. Excessive temper tantrums / difficulty in getting child to do chores

7. Social exclusion from activities

According to Spira & Fischel (2005), within the pre-school environment at the age of 3 yrs. old, children's attention controls, and self control mechanisms begin developing. Increased self control and speech development continues from age 3yrs. old (Spira & Fischel, 2005). Self control processes continue to well develop through the age of 4yrs. old (Spira & Fischel, 2005). These processes work together allowing the child to maintain self-control and through 4 yrs. of age the child develops the ability to direct attention to relavent environmental stimuli (Spira & Fischel, 2005). Together, the maintaining of attention and control over responses emerges and of course is very important in identifying task's and working functionally within the educational environment, however; these processes indicated do not emerge for those with ADHD due to the manifestation of hyper-activity and impulsivity around the age of 3 to 4 yrs. of age, and inattention manifesting near 5 to 6 yrs. of age (Spira & Fischel, 2005). As children develop into school age and adolescents, Barkley (2005) indicated that 30 to 50 percent of children will be retained one grade during their school years. According to Vance & Luk (2000), 20 to 30 percent of children with ADHD will manifest comorbidity with learning disorders; reading, arithmetic, writing or spelling. If a child is diagnosed with ADHD and Conduct Disorder the percentages increase for a co morbid learning disorder (Vance & Luk, 2000). One theoretical position (Velting & Whitehurst, 1997), is that according to Spira and Fischel, (2005) those children with ADHD do not acquire the literacy skills necessary for early reading and learning. Furthermore, it is hypothesized that the frustration due to lack of ability perpetuates acting out behaviors consistently witnessed by school staff of children with ADHD (Spira & Fischel, 2005).

As children move through adolescents it is abundantly clear that with vast developmental changes; finding ones role identity as clarified by Eric Erickson (Berger, 2006), relational dating, peer pressure, and other demands of adolescents become extraordinarily difficult with individual difficulties of impulsiveness, hyperactivity and inattentiveness (D. Moilanen CMSW, Personal Communication, January 25, 2007). According to Gordon (2006), adolescents continue to have many difficulties especially;

1. Disorganization

2. Planning long term assignments

3. Completing homework

4. Complying with parental rules.

5. Sustaining attention and focus

Because adolescents are seeking to find a competent and healthy identity, conflicts with parental and academic systems can leave an adolescent to feel diminished, angry and frustrated before the entry into adulthood (D. Moilanen CMSW, Personal Communication, January 25, 2007).

Adulthood brings new challenges and according to Jaffe, Benedictis, Segal & Segal, (2006), the following are just a few of the challenges for adults living with ADHD;

1. Managing money

2. "Zoning out in conversations"

3. Speaking without thinking

4. Procrastination

5. Becoming easily frustrated

Eric Erickson in Berger (2006) clarifies his theory of Psycho-Social Development and indicates that as early adults we want to find intimacy or we will face isolation. It seems clear that these adults due to their disability will continue to confront difficulties with their families, social relationships, and negative individual perceptions onward into adulthood. These difficulties could place them at risk to become isolated.

The individual within their family is greatly impacted by this developmental disorder. According to Barkley (2005) ADHD is 25 to 30% acquired by heredity, and if a parent has ADHD the child is 8 to 10 times more likely at acquiring the disorder. Barkley (2005) also indicated that parents at the beginning of preschool attend and manage their child fairly well, however; parents tend to lose what they feel as control over their child the further the child develops through school. Parents can feel drained, overwhelmed and exhausted; even feeling depressed, and begin blaming themselves for their child's behavior (Barkley, 2005). Over time these difficulties can lead to perceptions by parents that may be less than positive (Maniadaki, Sonuga, Kakouros, & Karaba, 2006).

Research shows that parental perceptions within the family can clearly have implications regarding how a child is treated and the negative affects and perceptions that affect the child's developmental stages (Maniadaki et al., 2006). According to Maniadaki et al., (2006), parental perceptions do have significant impact upon children suffering from ADHD due to the likelihood of the parents not obtaining mental health services for their children; the difficulty parents had identifying the impact the child's behavior would have on the child's development; and the parents inability to identify the severity of the child's symptoms, all have dramatic affects on the child's developmental processes. Siblings can also have negative perceptions of the child's behavior, affecting the degree of support siblings bring to each other within a family. According to Gordon (2006), siblings can feel sorry for their sibling with ADHD or they can get angry and resentful. These reactions create dynamic challenges for any family and or individual dealing with ADHD. Other possible hindering perceptions by parents within the family system can be identified by comparing Erickson's, Psycho Social Developmental Perspectives (Berger, 2000). According to Erickson, children from the age of 3 yrs. old to 6 yrs. of age will develop through a series of challenges to parents, taking the "initiative" or "failing," bringing feelings of "guilt" (Berger, 2000). When the child's challenging behavior takes place however, as Camparo, Christensen, Buhrmester & Hinshaw, (1994) states, that parents may not allow these children to have the benefit of the doubt, due to past excessive behavior under normal circumstances, and the parents may see their child as an "easy target." According to the evidence, miscalculating the child's natural challenging behavior could take place and disallow the child to develop in a healthy, "guilt free" way, having significant affects on their psycho-social development. Excessive amounts of guilt can produce significant amounts of anxiety and depression (Burns, 1990). These negative processes in variable degrees can clearly lead to negative affects on social and emotional processes (Burns, 1990).

Other family processes affecting ADHD and development according to Peris & Hinshaw (2003), is that core symptoms of impulse control and inattention are primarily heritable, and parental practices do not warrant significant (Barkley, 1998; Hinshaw 1994; Johnston & Mash, 2001), causation for ADHD. However, the family interaction patterns and external influences may have a significant impact on severity and the developmental course of ADHD (Peris & Hinshaw, 2003). Furthermore, evidence suggests (Barkley, 1985; Battle & Lacey, 1972; Buhrmester, Camparo, Christensen, Gonsalez, & Hinshaw, 1992; Campbell, 1973; Cunningham & Barkley, 1979; MacDonald, 1988; Mash & Johnston, 1982; Tallmadge & Barkley, 1983) that mothers of ADHD children are less affectionate. Other disturbing findings indicate that parents can be more critically demanding and parents independently report a greater tendency to blame their ADHD child for problems they actually had with their spouses; thus proving further that family systemic patterns can play a major role in the perpetuation and affects of ADHD upon child development (Camparo et al., 1994). Of course these processes clearly affect a school-age child within their families and external systems in ways which reduce a child's self worth, confidence, and abilities to properly interact and function within their environment; proving this, Dumas & Pelletier (1999) indicated that pre-adolescents were found to have lower levels of self esteem in areas of scholastic competence, behavioral conduct, and social acceptance.

According to Barkley (2005), those with ADHD, at times do not give themselves time to evaluate their emotions objectively before a reaction, fail to separate their feelings from fact. Being able to internalize our emotions, evaluate them, and analyze them before displaying them publicly assist in self control and is difficult for those suffering from ADHD (Barkley, 2005). Those who suffer from ADHD develop a pattern of social rejection due to inappropriate interactions beginning during formalized schooling according to Barkley (2005). According to Nixon (2001), those children suffering from ADHD lack significant social skills that affect the quality of their interactions, such as; verbal & physical aggression, disruptive attempts to enter new groups, negative classroom behaviors, being quick tempered and violating the rules. Nixon (2001) presents more evidence that social cognition is clearly affected and children with ADHD can have great difficulty in making clear interpretations of their environmental interactions with others. These variables clearly lead to inhibited social contact, and a dysfunction in psycho-social development. According to Eric Erickson in Berger (2000), he clearly indicates that formalized school age children from 7 to 11 years old need to develop confidence that allow them to feel as if they have mastered "Industry" (Berger, 2000). If this stage is not mastered, they may feel inferior (Berger, 2000). How can these children who are excluded due to their ADHD manifestations of behavior, be given the chance to participate and prove themselves to resist negative aspects of "Inferiority?" As these children develop into adolescents and adults, one can hypothesize when comparing ADHD behavior and social reactions with the Erickson Psycho-Social Framework (Berger, 2000). Erickson states that adolescents attempt to find their roles in the world and if they fail, role confusion develops (Berger, 2000). Confusion for those suffering from ADHD would come easily due to their exclusion from social groups and activities (Barkley, 2005). In order for adolescents to find their role and their identity; they must interact with others and feel accepted in their participation (Berger, 2000). Further into adulthood Erickson in Berger (2000), indicates that as adult's, individuals will seek intimacy with others or become isolated. The factor of isolation relates to the extent in which those developing fear rejection and disappointment (Berger, 2000). Unfortunately, prior social experiences of those suffering from ADHD can be littered with social rejection, feelings of disappointment and unacceptance due to impulsiveness and hyperactive behaviors (Barkley, 2005). Furthermore, (Pope, Bierman, & Mumma, 1999), these authors according to Nixon (2001), also claim that hyperactivity and the inattentive / immature nature of a child's behavior with ADHD contributes greatly to interpersonal problems.

In regards to social justice and cultural issues; according to Bender (2006), African American children may be under represented and under diagnosed in regards to ADHD. Experts such as (Dr. Rahn Bailey, 2006) according to Bender (2006), claim that as science is pursuing new technological processes to diagnose and treat ADHD, cultures like the African American community are subjected to propaganda, suspicion due to past and current discrimination, and negative stereotyping regarding mental illness; thus forming cultural decisions to avoid diagnosis and treatment of ADHD. This cultural-lens, based upon discriminatory and fear based experiences with the dominant culture dis-allows ethical decisions to help and assist African American children (Bender, 2006). These decisions according to experts (Bailey, 2006), is contributing to high rates of African American children disproportionately over represented in remedial programs and disproportionate amounts of African American children over represented in the criminal justice system (Bender, 2006). The issues of classism and impoverishment can also be a topic of concern regarding those who suffer from ADHD. According to Visser & Lesesne, (2005), ADHD diagnosis among males was reported significantly more often in families with incomes below the poverty threshold than in families with incomes at or above the poverty threshold. Here again, poverty makes a clear and consistent statement of risk for our developing children.

In conclusion, I believe that ADHD seems to be an elusive, devastating, developmental disorder. This disorder for my self is so destructive because of its manifesting elements of hyperactivity, impulsivity and inattentiveness. These variables are processes that if represented to certain degrees are perfect for destroying social, educational, emotional and individual development across the life span. Because our lives are so dependent upon not just our biological construction but also our social and environmental interaction; this disorder can be serious and detrimentally disruptive. I do however believe that new technologies are hopeful in understanding this disability in greater measures. I also have gained ideas regarding the new information regarding neuro-plastisity and the changing mind based upon therapeutic thought. I feel this may be a possible frontier of research that should be a priority in better understanding how the brain can change forms; especially the pre-frontal cortex regions.

L.J. Riley Jr. BSW, LLMSW

Reference

Barkley, R. A., (2005). Taking Charge of ADHD: The Complete Authoritative Guide for

Parents. New York: The Guilford Press.

Bender, E., (May 19, 2006). Scare tactics may deter blacks from ADHD help. Psychiatric News, 41 (10) 16. Retrieved January 20, 2007 from [http://pn.psychiatry]

online.org/cgi/content/full/41/10/16.

Berger, K. S., (2001). The Developing Person: Through the Life Span. New York:

Worth Publishing.

Burns, D. D., (1999). The Feeling Good Hand Book. New York: Plume Books.

Camparo, L., Christensen, A., Buhrmester, D., & Hinshaw, S., (1994). System functioning in families with ADHD and non-ADHD sons. Personal Relationships, 1, 301-308.

Dumas, D., & Pelletier, L. (1999). Perception in hyperactive children. Maternal Child

Nursing, 24, 12-19.

Gordon, J., (2006) Ohio facts sheet; adolescents with ADHD. Retrieved January 20, 2007 from [http://ohioline.osu.edu/hyg-fact/5000/5270.html].

Jaelline J., Benedictis, T., Segal, R., & Segal, J., (March 7, 2006). Adult ADD & ADHD: recognizing the symptoms and managing the effects. Retrieved on January 20, 2007 from http://www.helpguide.org/mental/adhd_add_adult_symptoms.htm.

Laigne, J.V., Gibbons, R.D., Christoffel, K.K., Arend, R., Rosenbaum, D., Binns, H., et al. (1996). Prevalence rates and correlates of psychiatric disorders among preschool children. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 35, 204-214.

Maniadaki, K., Sonuga-Barke, E., Kakouros, E., & Karaba, R., (February, 21, 2006). Parental beliefs about the nature of ADHD behaviors and their relationship to referral intentions in preschool children. Journal Compilation of Blackwell Publishing. Retrieved on January 20, 2007 from http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1365-2214.2005.00512.x.

Neufeld, P., & Foy, M., (2006). Historical reflections on the ascendancy of ADHD

in North America. British Journal of Education Studies, 54, (4), 449-470.

Nixon, E., (2001). The social competence of children with Attention Deficit Hyper-

activity Disorder: a review of the literature. Child Psychology & Review of the

Literature, 6, (4), 172-177.

Peris, T. S., Hinshaw, S. P., (2003). Family dynamics and preadolescent girls with ADHD: the relationship between expressed emotion, ADHD symptomatology, and comorbid disruptive behavior. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 44 (8) 1177 - 1190.

Rafalovich, A. (2001). The conceptual history of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity

Disorder: idiocy, imbecility, encephalitis and the child deviant, 1877-1929.

Deviant Behavior: an Interdisciplinary Journal, 22, 93-115.

Singh, I., (2002). Children and society. Center for Family Research University

of Cambridge, 16, 360-367.

Spira, E. G., Fischel, J. E., (2005). The impact of preschool inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity on social and academic development: a review. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 46 (7), 755-773.

Stubbe, D. E. (2000). Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder overview: historical

perspectives, current controversies, and future directions. Child and Psychiatric

Clinics of North America, 9 (3), 469-479.

Vance, A. L. A., Luk, E. S. L., (2000). Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: current

progress and controversies. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 34,

719-730.

Visser, S. N., Lesesne, C. A., (August 31, 2005). Mental health in the United States: prevalence of diagnosis and medication treatment for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder --- United States, 2003. Retrieved January 20, 2007 from http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5434a2.htm

Willoughby, M. T., (2003). Developmental course of ADHD symptomatology during

During the transition from childhood to adolescence: a review with recommendations.

Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 44 (1), 88-106.

L.J. Riley Jr. is a writer of metaphorical and childrens literature, motivational poetry and an advocate for those in need. L.J. graduated from Davison, Michigan in 1988 and joined the U.S. Army where he served as a combat veteran. College career includes; a Phi Theta Kappa graduate from Mott Community College, a Maize and Blue Scholar Award Winner from the University of Michigan Flint, a National Scholarette Nominee, a published recipient in the National Deans List, a Golden Key Honors Graduate, and a recipient of the Howard and Judy Simms Fellowship at the University of Michigan School of Social Work in Ann Arbor, Michigan. He resides in Burton, Michigan and can be contacted at Compassionpwr@juno.com

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Helen Keller - Character Development and Literature

How do you define and create a character? What are the secret techniques? Do you need to work on the following?

- The environment the character lives in;

- The character's position in society;

- The character's handicaps and strengths;

- Can the character be trusted, is the character inherently bad or loving;

- The character's view of the world;

- Is the character delusional about reality and where will this lead the story;

- Is the character spiritual and full of hope and bravery, or living with nothing to fall back on.

The techniques we follow can create either a weak meaningless character or a strong character that we can compare to Joan of Arc, Citizen Cane. Characters that have morals and have the will to achieve no matter the obstacles we put in their way. Or in another case someone who is bound to fail and have a sordid end.

Dracula has his environment and it works to build the type of person that is Dracula. In "The Lord of the Flies" the environment is an uninhabited island where the boys are forced to live in a certain way, in this case like savages. "Hercules" is tied to the Gods and his character revolves around his spirituality.

Creating a character takes great skill and one needs to develop and work on some of the above points. "Helen Keller" has been written about many times, to develop her character writers have concentrated their pen on her handicaps and strengths to project her character.

It is a fact that there is the rich and the poor and others somewhere in between. You need to define where your character fits in for the readers to know where your character is going and what risks the character can take? Where does the character fit into society? Is it survival for the fittest?

Characters in most cases let the reader reflect on the socio-economic, psychological, and the moral that is set, how to carry on in life in a world that is constantly challenging them. How we develop our characters makes for a good read or you can see your book make it back to the book shelf where it will be lost forever.

I have recommended these techniques and hope it helps you with your next big project.

Sean Tarquini received a liberal education at York University, Ontario, Canada. He writes books and for audio/visual presentations. His books are available on http://www.amazon.com and http://www.mobipocket.com

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Gothic Novel and the Development of the Genre in English Literature

Gothic Novel is a type of romantic fiction. It was predominant in English literature around the late 18th century to the first two decades of the 19th century. The setting for the fiction was usually a ruined Gothic castle. The typical story of such romantic fiction revolved around the suffering of an innocent woman inflected by a cruel villain. The writers used ghosts and other supernatural occurrences. The main intend of such novels was to evoke chilling terror by skillfully using mystery and horror.

The Term Gothic Applied for:

1. The Gothic novel was also considered as Gothic romance.

2. The term Gothic is also employed to designate narrative poetry or prose of which the major elements are horror, violence, and the supernatural.

3. The selection of the locale was usually a haunted castle with dungeons, underground passages, ghost-haunted rooms, and secret stairways that produced great amount of awe, wonder and fear.

The genre was nothing but a phase of the literary movement of romanticism in English literature. It was also the precursor of the modern mystery novel.

The Major writers of the Gothic Romance:

It was Horace Walpole who inaugurated the Gothic romance. He wrote The Castle of Otranto: A Gothic Story (1764). Other major writers were Clara Reeve, who wrote The Champion of Virtue (1777); Ann Radcliffe, who wrote The Mysteries of Udolpho (1794); Charles Robert Maturin, who wrote The Fatal Revenge (1807); and Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley who wrote Frankenstein (1818).

The American professional novelist Charles Brockden Brown is known for his Gothic romances. Other American writers such as Henry James, William Faulkner, and Flannery O'Connor used Gothic elements in their fiction. The late 20th century American novelists Stephen King and Anne Rice in their works show the sustained influence and popularity of this Gothic form.

Rakesh Patel is an aspiring poet, freelance writer, self-published author and teacher. Read his blog http://englishliterature99.wordpress.com/

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Problems Hindering The Development Of Sierra Leone Literature

There are only too many problems hindering the growth of Sierra Leonean literature. This includes the lack of a publishing house. As a result only those lucky and resilient enough to persist until they are noticed by a multi-national publishing firm and thus becoming published, survive as writers. There is also a lack of other alternative outlets such as literary journals or magazines. Apart from the fact that newspapers do not usually provide space for creative writing, they do very little to stimulate the production and growth of literature. When works get published by Sierra Leoneans they seldom get much attention in the press.

Another problem facing the literary art is the total lack of support from the government for literary activities. No support is given to efforts at creating literary outlets such as journals and magazines. A most glaring example of this unsupportive climate is seen in the Sierra Leone Association of Writers and Illustration having to subsist on only subscription with no government subvention whatsoever until its final demise.

The inhibiting influence of the acute shortage of electricity supply cannot be over emphasized. What I wish to underscore is that blackout and writing make uneasy bedfellows. Therefore in such a scenario writers wither, for they have to change their writing schedules and habits or perish.

The shortage, or expensiveness of stationary which are basic materials for the writer is another inhibiting factor. Stationary I think ranges from machineries such as typewriters to pens, pencils, paper, carbon and envelopes. Then with the completion of a manuscript comes the problem of dispatching it to a publisher. As most publications are based abroad, writers are left to bear the soaring postal rates. This is because with the present commercialization, the post office has ceased to be a social service. The widespread acceptance of submissions by e-mails is now minimizing this problem. As for me I find the convenience of e-mail so much easier, faster and cheaper that I have virtually forgotten about snail mails.

Books and other writing materials continue to be receiving heavy duties. Levies on books and other basic writing materials should be abolished if developments of the literature of Sierra Leone should be nurtured and this should be a consistent policy of government. Books and materials for their production should be free from all taxes and duties. There should now be a dramatic break from the past negative attitude to literacy and literature, In the past this has not been so. As a result there ihas been an ever diminishing demand for booksellers to order books except those whose demand is high as a result of being required at schools. Now the situation is much more desperate as indicated in another article I wrote 'The Strruggle of the Book in Sierra Leone.' which was published in FOCUS on International Library and Information Work.

A related problem is the negative effect of the recession on the once thriving bookshops. Sawyer's bookshop is of course no longer there. The Fourah Bay College Bookshop closed several years ago leaving no bookshop to service the book demands of a whole college. The Fourah Bay College Bookshop was important not only because it stocked a wide selection of books including the most recent literary ones but it also organized literary events such as poetry readings and published from time to time cyclostyled pamphlets containing collections of poems of poets as Dominic Ofori. I am not sure whether the Njala Bookshop is still operating. But here in town it is indeed painful to see the once central and indispensable buying center for school-books as well as other readings for the general public, the C..M.S. Bookshop now Sierra Leone Diocesan Bookshop folding up rapidly. Today they are occupying only a third of the space they once held. A bookshop recently opened at Fourah Bay College raising hopes of a renaissance.

The problem of a lack of a sustaining and economic reading public does not provide enough incentives for encouraging the setting up of publishing endeavors. Official indications is that only 15% of our 3 ½ million people are literate. Of those who are officially literate it is probable that the vast majority of them are to all practical purposes semi-literate as they read nothing beyond the weekly or fortnightly newspaper. This kind of insipidness has been contributed to by a sterile and unimaginative educational system which allows little room for creativity. As a result the society sustained is one that is indifferent and insensitive and unsupportive of the literary arts.

Recession has further intensified these negative attitudes. Even those who are literarily committed change their habits as the need for survival becomes more compelling.

A major problem which faces writers and artists is that of producing their works without any certainty of the protection of their works form pirates and other threats. It is astonishing that in a country where courts are full of litigation, over physical properties-landed as well as otherwise, little or no place is still afforded litigants over trespass on their intellectual property. This is not because there have been no such infringements. Neither is it because we have no copyright laws, for there is solid evidence now of the existence of one from 1965 though which many would claim needs updating. It is still been bemoaned that Sierra Leone remains one of the few countries in the world which is still not a signatory to either of the international copyright conventions, universal or Berne.

The problem of which language to write is one which persists for many writers in Africa. If he writes in English he will not be read widely in his country. This is even more so in Sierra Leone where only 15% are literate in English. But again which of the over 10 languages will he choose. And if he does choose one of the less developed national languages there is the fear that obscurity will remain his lot as he will not be read beyond the narrow national or ethnic confines of his locale. But the famous Kenyan Writer Ngugi Wa'Thiongo has proved that this need not be so. He now writes his novels in his native Gikuyu and then translates them into English thus killing two birds with one stone.

Already, with the advantageous position taken by Krio now almost a de-facto Lingua Franca being spoken widely throughout the country and now being predominantly used in the theatre Sierra Leonean writers are more blessed with a ready choice if they should wish to reach their people first. Already an orthography has been made and a dictionary published. A few works including the Krio dictionary are already available. This position alone gives some prospects for the development of the literary scene especially so when placed besides the pioneering work of Gladys Casely- Hayford and Thomas Decker.

The pioneering role of Sierra Leone in the fields of education, writing and journalism alone should make it ideal for the flourishing of creative literary works. It was after all the seat of the first and most prestigious college which produced some of the leading elite who were to lead their continent's development. It also had the first blossoms of schools, newspapers, journals and broadcasting media. With all this available history there must indeed be some rich potential waiting to be tapped. And indeed many young creative talents keep waiting to be tapped at all levels whenever the machinery is set in motion for the full realization of our creative literary reservoir. Already signs of breakthrough were seen in other aspects of the arts, resulting in the upsurge of musical recordings, theatrical activities, and the larger percentage of novels which have been published internationally by Sierra Leonean writers during the past two decades. This hope in our prospects for a take off can only be buttressed by the fact that Sierra Leone boasts of two of the continent's most prominent critics of African Literature Profs. Eldred Jones and Eustace Palmer. Already the poet Syl Cheyney Coker has become a leading figure in African Literature by bagging two prestigious prizes in just a year after the publication of his first novel - The Last Harmattan of Alusine Dunbar which received rave reviews from some of the top media across the globe including the BBC Arts programmes Meridian and Arts and Africa. The two prizes in question here are the Robert Higham prize for a first novel; published in Britain. 3rd place and the African short list for the Commonwealth Prize.

Our present recession could be a plus for creativity for recession generally should serve as a stimulus for people to write and expiate their feelings. God knows, perhaps it is through such means that a breakthrough could be found. Experience and careful observation shows that most countries in the world have had the greatest spurt of creative explosion during crisis periods in their history. The great spurt of literature 'the Nigerian civil war gave birth to is a case in point. So it is for us to see our own economic crisis as a fuel for generating our own creativity. Though we missed exploiting amply the opportunities offered by the UNESCO cultural decade we might try now to get funding from that end as well as locally to finance publications and other literary events. All the slightest hints of promise should be amply utilised. For there are certain signs that Sierra Leone will no longer be an obscure spot in the literary world. Syl Cheney Coker has brought much attention to Sierra Leone by his literary breakthrough with his first novel The Last Harmattan of Alusine Dunbar. This is reenforced by the impact of his third volume of poems. The Blood in the the Desert's Eyes. He has now completed work on his second novel The Last Days of the Barracuda . His previous two volumes of poems are: Concerto for an Exile and The Graveyard also has Teeth . This feat was only recently boldly followed with the emergence of another strident literary voice in Aminata Forna with her Booker- prize winning The Devil that Danced on the Water and her most recent Ancestor Stone

Much promise of growth also came from the large output of works of folklore put out by an Adult Education Association., The Peoples Education Association (P.E.A.) through their Songs and Stories (SAS) project. Though aimed primarily at retrieving and recording our oral lore through songs, proverbs and folktales, it has published some real creative efforts such as two plays, The Weaverbirds and The Runaway by Frederick Borbor James and a collection of stories of Brima Rogers Love without Questions.

Happily some space is now being given by some newspapers to poems and short stories. The National for instance featured regularly poems and carried a few stories which included five of mine. Through a column in the same paper I tried to redirect attention to the literary and cultural domain. A few others. The New Shaft from time to time published poems. And I have seen some stories published in the pages of. The Vision.. Other papers have received literary publications through reviews in their pages. I have acknowledged . Sam Metzger who through his We Yone newspaper reviewed my work Folktales from Freetown which was published in 1987 as part of the bicentenary celebrations of the founding of Freetown. It is hoped that this is only the beginning of a growing trend, so that when next Sierra Leone makes a literary breakthrough the local press will not remain even though innocently or silent on it whilst it receives rave reviews in the international media. The press should not preoccupy itself exclusively in painting a completely dark picture of the society when indeed there are sparks of light here and there. These should be magnified within their pages so that readers do not get drowned in depressive complacence and despair. Readers could only be galvanized into action to redeeming the fate of our country if aware of the little though enviable efforts others are making in their little corners.

The electronic revolution is also beginning to be a boon for Sierra Leonean literature as well. Quite a number of individuals as well as institutions have created internet sites which are publishing on-line the works of Sierra Leonean writers, thus giving it a much wider exposure than was ever possible.

The first and most noteworthy of these online e-journals is the Sierra Leonean Writers Series (SLWS) which was set up and launched in 2001 in Sierra Leone in Freetown by Dr Osman Mallam Sankoh. Many of its works the latest being Lucilda Hunter's novel Redemption Song are also available in printed book form. It focuses on academic, fictional, and scientific writing used in schools and colleges,promoting good quality books by Sierra Leoneans, writers of Sierra Leonean descent , and writers writing on or about Sierra Leone. The works published have local appeal and are related to the lives and experiences of Sierra Leoneans. The Mabayla Review another online journal is published four times a year by a prolific poet Gbanabom Hallowell offering a wide range of fiction including one of mine, poetry, social essays, translations, interviews, book reviews, criticism, theory alongside photographs focusing on Sierra Leone's literary tradition and issues of social justice and the writing life in general from new and established Sierra Leonean and guest writers as well as social and political commentaries by Sierra Leoneans arising out of Sierra Leonean life. The journal founded in 2006 though it seems to have suffered some setbacks since its last edition in April 2007. I was assured by Mr Hallowell that it will resume after the redesigning of the website. I do hope this is accelerated as I have a few more stories to appear there and I think it holds the greatest prospect for the growth of writing in Sierra Leone.

Sierra Leone Pen is in the process of building a website sierraleonepen.org which should be expanding into publishing poetry and stories. For now the site is restricted to news items, photos and features. Perhaps the most certain promise given to not only literature but arts and culture in general is the singular commitment of government to cultural development expressed in the 1991 constitution but which is yet to be more boldly articulated in real terms with visible support for writers and other programs supportive of the growth of a luxuriant and strident literature from our shores. Now that a new government is now in place it is hoped that much interest and support wlll be coming from Government.

Arthur Edgar Smith was born, and schooled in Freetown, Sierra Leone.. He has taught English since 1977 at Prince of Wales School and, Milton Margai College of Education. He is now Senior Lecturer at Fourah Bay College where he has been lecturing English, Literature, as well as Creative Writing for the past seven years He is widely published with his writings appearing in local newspapers as well as in West Africa Magazine, Index on Censorship, Focus on Library and Information Work amongst, ChickenBones, shvoomg.com and others.

He was one of 17 international visitors who participated in a seminar on contemporary American Literature sponsored by the U.S.State Department from June to August 2006. His growing thoughts and reflections on this trip which took him to various US sights and sounds in Louisville,, San Francisco, Cincinnatti and Washington D.C. could be read at lisnews.org.

His other publications include: Folktales from Freetown, Langston Hughes: Life and Works Celebrating Black Dignity, and 'The Struggle of the Book'

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Selecting a Facebook Application Development Provider - 5 Tips Useful to Know

In today's social-networking world Facebook is one of the unquestioning leaders. It gives unique opportunities to its users and is both a place to meet friends and a profitable advertising space.

Facebook applications and Facebook Connect are relatively new ways proposed by Facebook to drive traffic and customers. Currently they attract much attention of website and business owners who consider utilizing them as a part of an overall marketing strategy.

If you decide to develop a Facebook application or use advanced options of Facebook Connect, you need a professional development team that can implement that task in the most effective way. Here are a few tips which can be useful when selecting a Facebook app provider.

Choosing a team of Facebook application developers

1). Try to find experienced social network programmers rather than usual website developers. That means that the most appropriate candidate should have both technical understanding and deep people comprehension. Why? Because to develop a Facebook app is only half of the battle, the main point is to make it so that people like it and want to use it. In other words, your development team should understand key marketing principles of Facebook and think over every feature to drive users to your application.

2). Assure that the team is able to develop not only a cool functionality but also make an application user-friendly. A handy and stylish interface is crucial for your Facebook application success.

3). Make sure the provider is aware of Facebook Privacy Policy (facebook.com/privacy/explanation.php?ref=pf), Facebook Developer Principles and Policies (developers.facebook.com/policy/), and upcoming changes described in Facebook Developers Roadmap (wiki.developers.facebook.com/index.php/Developer_Roadmap). These documents contain lists of limitations that should be taken into account while developing Facebook apps. If your application does not comply with them, it won't be permitted on Facebook.

4). Check that they have relevant experience in source code design and refactoring techniques. That helps to keep the application responsive to Facebook API (Application Programming Interface) changes with minimal effort. Keeping the source code in a good shape and with proper comments is a key to smooth maintenance for the application lifetime.

5). Every time Facebook gets a shiny new feature or enhances Facebook API the programmers should be able to reflect that in your application. Long-term relationship with your development team is one of the best solutions for that task.

Facebook applications and Facebook Connect are increasingly becoming must-have marketing and social-networking tools. A good development team can help you to avoid typical mistakes and get the most of Facebook opportunities.

About the Author
Dmitriy Kharchenko is the CEO of Acceptic Ltd, a software development company, Ukraine. Among other services, Acceptic provides Facebook Connect integration and Facebook application development - FB apps that win a lot of fans.

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Facebook Application Development - Tips For Owners and Designers

Facebook applications are an innovation aimed to help their owners to make the most of one of the largest social networks. But like any other popular novelty, this Facebook option raises a lot of questions too.

In this article you will find tips and recommendations which can be helpful when planning, designing, and developing Facebook applications.

Facebook Development Platform - Innovations and... Volatility

Facebook is growing fast now. The number of Facebook users escalates in thousands and millions. It means that Facebook apps owners get increasingly more potential users every single day.

But this coin has a reverse side too: due to Facebook rapid evolution tools for the application development - Facebook API (Application Programming Interface), etc - are changed quite often as well. Owners, designers, and developers should keep track of such new features because they can affect appearance, functionality, and operability of existing applications.

1). So, before starting planning a Facebook application make sure you have read Facebook Privacy Policy and Facebook Developer Principles and Policies. These documents contain lists of limitations that should be taken into account while designing and developing your Facebook application. If your application does not correspond to them, the Facebook team may not approve it for using on Facebook.

2). Read Facebook Developers Roadmap to be aware of the upcoming changes and to forecast respective modifications of your application in advance.

Frankly, documents mentioned above are not bedside literature. If you outsource their reading and learning to programmers, just remember that there are some constraints and internal rules on Facebook which can change with time, and your FB application should follow them.

Successful Facebook Applications Start from Successful Design

Design is extremely important for Facebook application success. In order to provide good look and feel of your FB app take into account the following points.

1). Design should be an integral part of a general application concept and convey ideas and feelings behind it.

2). Design should be user-friendly, intuitive, and of playing style to some extent, because Facebook apps are entertaining by their nature. That extent depends on your application niche.

3). Design should be social-networking and viral - and give a user a supporting environment to socialize with other users. Does your design encourage people to communicate and make invitations? Does your design help people to express themselves and show them in a favorable light among their friends? Will users say each other "Wow, just take a look at that app!"?

4). Design may impose certain restrictions on a Facebook application and, therefore, cause problems when programming the app and afterwards when adding new functional features. As a result, a FB application design should be flexible and simple enough to be able to reflect that constant Facebook growth we've discussed above.

5). Also remember that potential users are spoilt by numerous already existing applications competing for their attention. So, analyze your competition to understand what and why is popular and how it can be overcome.

Facebook Apps vs. Facebook Connect - What Is the Difference From a Development Viewpoint?

Basic-level components of Facebook Connect are scripts which help to realize such options as sharing a piece of content or a link from your website onto Facebook, driving fans to your Facebook Page, etc. Such scripts are ready-to-use and easy-to-install onto a website.

Unlike it Facebook apps are software applications which are developed from scratch using Facebook Development Platform (Facebook API), as well as PHP, AJAX, MySQL, and other programming languages, libraries, and so forth. No wonder Facebook applications development and integration require designers, programmers, testers to be involved, and it is very similar to the creation of any other piece of conventional software. This is also true for Advanced Facebook Connect options and their tuning.

Facebook applications should not be confused with ordinary websites too. Usually FB apps are complex web-based systems with a lot of back-end (server-side) modules which, actually, provide app functionality and make the application attractive for users.

Facebook applications and Facebook Connect are all the rage now. What your FB app will be - just an attempt to follow the fashion or an effective tool to make the most of Facebook - depends on many factors. The deeper you learn and understand them, the better your result will be.

About the Author
Dmitriy Kharchenko is the CEO of Acceptic Ltd, a software and custom Web development company. Among other services, Acceptic provides Facebook Connect integration and Facebook apps development - FB applications that win a lot of fans.

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