EMR and EHR System Implementation Best Practices - Part 4 - Literature Review

This is the fourth article in a series dedicated to uncovering the best practices for an EMR implementation. The information presented has been developed by the author as part of a research project.

Literature Review - Introduction

Opinions vary on widely on the benefits of EMR technology and whether providers should implement them. Christman suggests that the security issues alone is reason enough to seriously assess whether an EMR is right for a particular practice (Christman, 2006). However, government entities at both the state and federal level (Edwards, Lovelock, & Rose, 2006) along with third party payer groups (Wojcik, 2006) and corporate entities (Bit by bit, 2006) are driving health care providers ultimately to electronically accessible medical records.

Currently, about 25 percent of U.S physicians are using systems that facilitate electronic health records (Murdock, 2007). As EMR systems gain momentum due to private and public pressures, the number of implementations will continue to rise and subsequently lead to the rise in failures (The Standish Group, 1995). It is the purpose of this study to help reduce failures by providing a framework in which effective best practice within the field.

Many factors may influence the successful implementation of EMR systems. An understanding of an EMR system's purpose, function and intended benefits help determine in part what influences the success or failure of an EMR project along with awareness of mistakes in the past while leveraging integration best practices that may be unique to EMR implementations.

Electronic Medical Record Systems

The collection of personal health data is described to have many formats when speaking of systems that manage it. An Electronic Medical Record is the collection of data that is central to the patient (Rishel, Handler, & Edwards, 2005). An EMR system exists to facilitate the storage, retrieval and continuity of the record itself (Gans, Kralewski, Hammons, & Dowd, 2005). EMR systems vary in functionality. According to Gans et al., EMR systems typically have the following functions listed from most common to least common:

Patient Demographics
Visit/encounter notes
Patient medications/prescriptions
Presenting complaint
Physical exam/review of symptoms
Past medical history
Problem lists
Procedure/operative notes
Laboratory results
Drug interaction warnings
Radiology/imaging results
Consult/reports from specialists
Referrals to specialists
Drug reference information
Immunization tracking
Drug formularies
Clinical guidelines and protocols
Integration with practice billing system

Other functions may include a claims processing component that allows the coding and transmitting of clinical data to insurance companies to improve the time and cost involved in dealing with insurance carriers (Research Notes, 2006).

There are other names for EMR systems such as the Electronic Health Record (EHR), Personal Health Record (PHR), Electronic Patient Record (EPR) and Computerized Patient Record (CPR). Confusion around the many terms as well as what is represented by them impacts a provider's ability to strategically assess which system is best for them (Rishel et al., 2005). Still, there are some subtle differences between each of the terms. An EMR is typically generated by a physician's practice. An EPR or EHR is typically generated using multiple sources such as those shared between a physician and a hospital. Finally, a PHR is a collection of patient information that the patient themselves hold and share with providers (Barlow, 2007).

EMR systems can be a complex set of connected systems with significant data collection points or it can be a simple system that collects basic data needed to record and associate health information with a specific patient (Rishel, 2007). An EMR system is a collection of information technology that perform the functions noted above by leveraging databases for repositories of data or aggregation points for summary data from other systems (Rishel et al., 2005).

The result of multi-faceted interaction of patient and the health care system is a distributed health record that resides in as many locations as the patient has seen physicians (Ewing, 2007). No one provider has a consistent and full picture of the patient history or treatment. One of the primary benefits of the EMR system is to help eliminate the disconnect and attempt to aggregate patient data as well as make it easier to share the data with other participating providers.

The patient's complex interaction with the healthcare system (Ewing, 2007) further reveals a problematic approach to the purpose and the ultimate goals of implementing an EMR system. This complex interaction of both human and functional provider systems leads to the case for an EMR system. Ewing suggests that the complex interactions of a patient with the medical delivery system expose the patient to significant risk of adverse treatment. Risks identified include delivery of incorrect medication, prescription interactions and lack of medical history in emergency situations. EMR systems are designed to help improve patient medical care and the provider's ability to deliver accurate medical information (Kizer, 2007).

EMR systems may ultimately feed other systems such as an aggregation point for a PHR that a patient can access and carry with them from appointment to appointment (Shetty, 2007). Reversing the scenario, an EMR system can collect and aggregate information from other sources such as laboratory, x-ray and unstructured data like faxes or handwritten notes (Wojcik, 2006). Reduction of the storage necessary to keep paper charts is also a noted as a reason to leverage and EMR freeing up of space better used for revenue generation. Paper charts have their own risks associated with them in terms of getting lost, productivity impacts to maintain and retrieve paper records and the resulting negative patient care. (Carpenter, 2002). Effective access to medical records has become is another purpose of an EMR system. The ability to access a record from remote locations is important to ensure continuity of care (Research notes, 2006).

The intended effect of EMR systems on the healthcare landscape is wide-ranged depending on the type of system and the environment in which it is being implemented. A group practice implemented an EMR system to improve the accuracy of their claims and improve efficiency and information flow (Sonnenberg,

2007). Government entities such as the Department of Veteran Affairs and the Department of Defense have larger goals of integration and delivery of a common medical record and full digitization of clinical data that can be shared with branches of the military (Melvin, 2007).

The near term presents providers with realizing the digitization of the boxes of paper that is generated by patient encounters. These paper databases represent the clinical data that is ultimately needed to take EMR systems to the next level. Clinical data is the baseline in which all healthcare processes subscribe including decision support, health outcome analysis, billing and claims processing and health maintenance.

Correlation and access to this data is what EMR systems seek to facilitate (Handler & Hieb, 2007). With Clinical data as a basis, further utilization of EMR systems can occur. EMR systems, once materially implemented across the healthcare spectrum, will itself become the framework in which more overarching goals can be accomplished, such as the centralization of a person's health history.

Gartner (Handler & Hieb, 2007) break down EMR system into generational phases of maturity (summarized):

Phase 1 systems are designed to collect encounter based information such as prevalent in a physician provider environment.

Phase 2 systems are designed to allow the updating and entry of information at the point of care. For example, a physician is making rounds at a hospital and can update his EMR records remotely rather than just access it.

Phase 3 systems are designed to support clinical episodes where there are one or more encounters that provide complete information on a patient with system recommended treatment options provided by decisions support systems. Phase 3 attempts to provide basic level evidence based medicine implementation.

Phase 4 systems are designed to further enhance the integration of systems to provide all stakeholders (physicians, nurses, pharmacists, etc.) access to patient data and to help facilitate the care process rather than just document it.

Phase 5 are complex, fully integrated systems that provide solutions across the full spectrum of care. These systems provide both visual and data driven insight and suggested courses of action where appropriate. Knowledge management is fully integrated into phase 5 systems to facilitate a more partner based approach to care.

The iterative nature of EMR system provides a baseline in which each generation can grow. However, very few EMR implementations reviewed have been shown to reach much past the first generation. Even those that are utilizing a Phase 1 EMR system are about one in four (Murdock, 2007). As adoption continues to grow, so will opportunities to further integrate with disparate systems and the development of standards for access to EMR data in a format that can be shared with both the consumer of services and the providers of care.

The next article(s) will delve into additional reference material and case studies related to EMR Implementations.

All References can be found on my website at http://www.keithfulmer.com

Keith has been in information technology planning and project management for over 16 years and is a senior healthcare operations executive. He has a passion for project management best practices and healthcare and looks forward to the coming age of the EHR.

Having two children with allergies to peanuts, Keith is passionate about allergy awareness. Come visit his latest website over at http://www.allergyalertbracelet.com/ which helps people find the best allergy alert bracelet and information they are looking for when dealing with adult or child allergy awareness.

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Colorectal Cancer Part 5: Review of Medical Literature: Not All Patients Benefit From Chemotherapy

After surgery, microscopic cancer cells are still left behind in the body. As an "insurance policy" patients are told by their oncologists to undergo chemotherapy or radiotherapy (or both). The idea is to kill whatever cancer cells are left behind. But how effective is this? How valid is the assumption that chemotherapy can just do that?

I invite you to read the following research papers and give them some serious thought. Form your own opinion as to what you would want to do in the event that you suffer from early stage (Stage 2) colorectal cancer.

Scholefield J.H. in an article: "Challenges in colorectal cancer." (Book review. New England J of Medicine. September 2000. Vol: 343:893.) wrote:

"Colorectal cancer presents some of the most challenging problems for basic scientists, clinical investigators and practitioners. Surgery remains the centre of attention."

Question: All these years, why is the treatment of colorectal "most challenging?" Has the treatment protocol for colorectal cancer not been worked out yet?

Moertel, C. G. (in Chemotherapy for colorectal cancer. New England J. of Medicine. April 1994. Vol: 330: 1136-1142) wrote:

"Radiation therapy plays only a palliative role. In the past, chemotherapy resulted in only infrequent and usually transient shrinkage of the tumour. Its use is scarcely justified in view of the discomforts and costs of the treatment. However, now there have been some advances."

Question: The author is a renowned oncologist from the famous Mayo Clinic. It is most amazing to note that "in the past chemotherapy resulted only in temporary tumour shrinkage." Even shrinkage is infrequently achieved. But then, we were made to believe that chemotherapy was necessary. Was it a mistake then? Was undergoing chemotherapy in the past unjustifiable? What about the present? Is it going to be another mistake down the road? The author is implying that perhaps now, it is okay -- we are seeing some advances? Chemotherapy, even today is not a pleasant experience while some patients said they suffered badly. Besides, it still cost a lot of money. Has the present situation change?

Buyse M & Piedbois P. (in: Should Duke's B patients receive adjuvant therapy? A statistical perspective. Semin. Oncol. 2001.(Suppl. 1): 20-24) wrote:

"The benefit of adjuvant therapy, e.g., 5-FU + leucovorin, is a matter of debate for patients with Duke's B colon cancer. Five separate trials failed to show a significant benefit of adjuvant 5-FU + leucovorin compared with surgery alone."

Benson, A. B., et al. (in: American Society of Clinical Oncology recommendations on adjuvant chemotherapy for stage II colon cancer. J. of Clinical Oncology, August 2004. Vol: 22: 3408-3419) wrote:

"Direct evidence from randomized controlled trials does not support the routine use of adjuvant chemotherapy for patients with stage II colon cancer. Therefore the routine use of adjuvant chemotherapy for medically fit patients with stage II colon cancer is not recommended."

Figueredo A. et al. (in: Adjuvant therapy for stage II colon cancer: A systematic review from the Cancer Care Ontario Program in Evidence-based Gastrointestinal Cancer Disease Site Group. J. of Clinical Oncology, August 2004. Vol: 16: 3395-3407) wrote:

"The benefits of adjuvant chemotherapy are small and not necessarily associated with improved overall survival. Patients should be made aware of these results."

With the above research results would cancer patients take a pause and think seriously enough before they "follow" what their oncologists may want them to do?

For more information about holistic therapy visit: http://www.cacare.com, http://www.NaturalHealingForYou.com, http://www.cancer-answers.blogspot.com

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The Bible As Literature, An Introduction - A Review

SUMMARIES

a. Chapter 15 (The Text of the Bible)

This chapter assesses the evidence available to Biblical textual scholars as they work toward realistic goals like determining the earliest among the variant readings that ancient manuscripts provide and understanding the development of Biblical texts during the history of their transmission. How have the ancient Biblical texts been transmitted to our time? In what forms do they exist? To what extent can we trust those forms to embody the actual words of the original authors? The writers observe that printed Hebrew Bibles and Greek New Testaments are artificial entities which are created in relatively modern times from the evidence in ancient manuscripts. Repeated copying introduces alterations and some copyists deliberately alter the text to ''correct'' or ''improve'' the original. The writers observe that there are about 5,350 different manuscripts of the Greek New Testament. What can account for this wide variance among documents written so early in the history of the New Testament text? In addition to errors of copying and writing, Christianity was evolving rapidly during the first several centuries and the New Testament evolved along with it to meet its needs. Generally, the textual situation of the Hebrew Bible appears far more stable than that of the Greek New Testament. This notwithstanding, the situation is far more complicated than it would appear to be. We should not suppose that the urge to ''correct'' text was any less active among Old Testament writers than among Christian Scribes. The writers observe that there are passages in the Bible that are sufficiently similar to indicate that they derive from the same source (or from one another) but also sufficiently different to demonstrate that there was great freedom in handling the text even during the time of the books of the Bible were being written. Some duplicate (Psalms 14 and 53; 40: 14-18 and 70: 2-6) and triplicate texts (II Kings 18:13ff, Isaiah 36:1ff and II Chronicles 32:1 ff; and Jeremiah 39:1ff, Jeremiah 52:4ff and II Kings 25:1ff) provide supportive evidence. The textual situation of the Apocryphal text, Ecclesiastics (known to Jews as The Wisdom of Jesus been sire) is discussed. The writers observe that it was sometimes cited in rabbinic literature although it was never formally admitted to the Hebrew canon.

b. Chapter 16 (Translating the Bible)

It is a paradox to note that not more than one percent of Bible readers can read the text in Hebrew and Greek. The implication is a very heavy reliance on translation. This chapter discusses some challenges faced in translating the Bible. How well readers are served who must depend on translations? Can such readers be confident that translations in general, or any one in particular, will give them the whole Bible and nothing but the Bible? Gabel, Wheeler and York are correct to observe that a completely faithful translation cannot be made into another language because there is no universally agreed upon text of the Bible to translate from and secondly that complete faithfulness in translating anything (the Bible included) is not always possible.

Establishing a text therefore is very complex and potentially tedious. Demanding a translation of "the whole Bible and nothing but the Bible" is imagining an entity that does not exist. The ideal of translation (to carry over the whole sense of the word from the original language to the ''receptor language'') can never be realized. Some original sense is left behind while an additional sense could be imposed. How can one choose among the diverse translations? What criteria should guide the choice? The writers propose that readers should use the characteristic combination of formal correspondence and dynamic equivalence. The former is the quality of a translation in which the features of the form of the source text have been mechanically reproduced in the receptor language. The latter is the quality of a translation in which the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptor is like that of the original receptors. Depending on a translation is to be at the mercy of the translators. A realistic recommendation is to use at least two or three versions in order to double or triple the number of expert opinions available on a given passage.

c. Appendix II (Writing in Biblical times)

The Bible had been a handwritten book for a much longer time than it had been a printed book. What was required to create a formal written document during those many centuries before the printing press took over? In this appendix, the writers surveyed the technology of writing in order to shed light on the conditions that gave us the Bible as a physical object.

Writing is regarded as a very old human invention. Clay, animal skin and papyrus are identified as three major materials employed for writing in the West and in the Near East until the introduction of rag paper from the Far East long after the Biblical period. The writer traces a number of Biblical accounts concerned with the writings. Moses writes on stone labels (Ex. 34:28-29); Joshua engraves a copy of the Law of Moses (Josh. 8:32); Isaiah is instructed to take a large tablet (Is. 8:1) and write a symbolic name upon it; Ezekiel is given a scroll to eat by Yahweh, which according to the writers, is perhaps understood as a small roll of papyrus (Ezek. 3:1-2); Jeremiah dictates an oracle concerning Judah''s coming destruction to his secretary Baruch, who takes it down in ink on a scroll (Jer. 36). At the end of II Timothy, the author requests that the scrolls be brought to him especially the parchments and John is required to eat a little scroll (Rev. 10:9-10). According to the writers'' supposition, the Pentateuch, history books, Job, Proverbs and Psalms would have been written on leather (locally available to Israel) or papyrus (from Egypt). They opined that the oracles of the prophets probably circulated orally and might have been written down initially in the form of notes on potsherds or wood and then on leather and papyrus. Parchment, they believed, could have been chosen later as an alternative. They also traced the movement from roll to codex and papyrus to parchment.

RESPONSE

a. Chapter 15 (The Text of the Bible)

The writers are correct to observe that the task of biblical textual scholarship is not easy since its theoretical goal (that is to weed out alterations of any kind and thus to arrive back at the original texts as the authors wrote them) will never be reached since there will never be enough evidence to accomplish it. It is rightly observed that the very notion of a single original text is itself an illusion.

b. Chapter 16 (Translating the Bible)

The writers did very little to separate the challenges faced in translation, making it relatively difficult for the reader to fully appreciate the discussion. This is where the strength of Omanson (1988) lies. He divides the problems into several categories ? textual, grammatical, terms of kinship and pronoun gender. Another vivid summary is also worth mentioning:

First, no matter how wonderful a translation is, it has limitations. The Bible was originally written using 11,280 Hebrew, Aramaic and Greek words, but the typical English translation uses only around 6,000 words. Obviously, nuances and shades of meaning can be missed, so it is always helpful to compare translations (Warren 2002, 325).

It is a truism that "the translation you are using may be correct, of course; but it also may be wrong" (Fee and Stuart 1982, 29). One limitation of this chapter is surveying the history of Biblical translation only in English though the writers acknowledged the fact that there is an equivalent history for other European languages.

c. Appendix (Writing in Biblical Times)

Perhaps the most impressive feature in their presentation is the manner in which the writers portrayed the vast gulf that separates our world, with its inexpensive printed materials and widespread literacy, from the world within which the Bible developed ? and within which it was disseminated for so many hundred years. It is however unfortunate that theirs is not as impressive as Patzia''s similar presentation on writing, copying and transmitting the New Testament manuscripts (Patzia 1995). Unlike Patzia, there are no pictures to give a graphic illustration of how these texts appeared on different writing materials. Generally, the fact that the text itself is in its third edition has been published in twenty seven cities reveals its importance. The writers provide essential background information of the sort that few students have either the time or ability to piece together out of the enormous mass of published material on the Bible.

LIST OF REFERENCES

Fee, Gordon and Douglas Stuart. 1992. How to Read the Bible for all its Worth: A Guide to Understanding the Bible. Michigan: The Zondervan Corporation.

Omanson, Roger L. 1988. Can You Get There from Here?: Problems in Bible Translation. Christian Century. June 22-29.

Patzia, Arthur G. 1995. The Making of the New Testament: Origin, Collection, Text and Canon. Downers Grove, Illinois: Inter Varsity Press.

Warren, Rick. 2002. The Purpose Driven Life: What on Life Am I Here for? Grand Rapids, Michigan:Zondervan.

AUTHOR SIGNATURE
Oliver L.T. Harding, who obtained his GCE O & A Levels from the Sierra Leone Grammar School and the Albert Academy respectively, is currently Senior & Acting Librarian of Fourah Bay College, University of Sierra Leone. He is a part time lecturer at the Institute of Library, Information & Communication Studies (INSLICS), Fourah Bay College and the Extension Programme at the Evangelical College of Theology (T.E.C.T) at Hall Street, Brookfields; Vice President of the Sierra Leone Association of Archivists, Librarians & Information Scientists (SLAALIS); a member of the American Theological Library Association (ATLA) and an associate of the Chartered Institute of Library & Information Professionals (CILIP). His certificates, secular and sacred, include: a certificate and diploma from the Freetown Bible Training Centre; an upper second class B.A. Hons. Degree in Modern History (F.B.C.); a post-graduate diploma from the Institute of Library Studies (INSLIBS, F.B.C) a masters degree from the Institute of Library, Information & Communication Studies (INSLICS, F.B.C.) and a masters degree in Biblical Studies from West Africa Theological Seminary, affiliate of the University of Nigeria, Nsukka, where he won the prize for academic excellence as the Best Graduating Student in 2005. Oliver, a writer, musician and theologian, is married (to Francess) with two children (Olivia & Francis).
Email: oltharding@yahoo.com
Mobile: 232-2233-460-330

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A Review Executive Coaching Related Literature Part I

Research by Bluckert (2005), Joo (2005), and Linkage (2006) found that the executive coach flourishes in a coach-training environment, working with individual leaders to enhance their personal behavioral change against the backdrop of their company's strategy and the larger team. The literature also suggests the coaching relationship necessitates grounding in practical techniques geared toward action, along with setting forth the following parameters executive coaching should fall within: (a) utilizing proven assessment tools for insight and perspective, (b) using clear measurements to track behavioral change and its impact on performance, (c) respecting confidentiality while also connecting back to the key people around the client, and (d) imparting wisdom but insisting upon action.

Effron, Salob, & Greenslade (2005) found that companies with stronger leadership practices outperformed their industry peers in a long-term measure of both financial growth and return. One practice Effron (2005) discovered that separated the top companies from others was the use of executive coaching. Their study found that 47% of the top companies regularly assign coaches to their high potential employees. Meanwhile, just 10% of the remaining 300 firms surveyed made a similar claim. This evidence suggests that executive coaching provides a powerful tool to accelerate the performance of successful executives and in turn, the corporation.

Executive Coaching Core Competencies

Brotman (1998) offered the following core competencies based upon their collective personal experience: Approachable, comfort around top management, compassion, creativity, customer-focused, integrity and trust, intellectual horsepower, interpersonal savvy, listening, dealing with paradox, political savvy, and self-knowledge. However, Brotman et al.'s (1998) suggested competencies are based upon anecdotal evidence and not empirical research.

Given this complex matrix of core competencies, it might seem that a superior executive coach is created through proper DNA, not through training (Brotman, 1993). The hard truth, as Goldsmith and Lyons, (2006) have offered, is that every coach learns through doing. The coach often begins his or her calling due to a passionate desire to take a leadership role in a particular area of expertise or interest. This passion carries the coach through a sometimes painful growth of skills and abilities in the service of his or her calling.

Each executive coach interviewed by Linkage (2006), Effron et al. (2005), and Goldsmith (2006), spoke about a two-way dynamic in their coaching relationships, which is frequently described as teaching that flows in both directions, with the coach providing insight to the client, and vice versa. They found that superior coaches are always learning, growing, and developing key behaviors.

A coach, like a leader, can be developed if he or she possesses the passion and desire (Blackman, 2006). However, this is a personal journey more than an educational attainment. Skills are teachable and learnable, techniques may be replicated, but true understanding, and proficiency only comes from carefully honed practice in real-world situations (McClelland, 1973; Spencer & Spencer, 1993).

Dr. Dave Hale is the CEO of DHI-Communications, an international business coaching and training consultancy, specializing in ecommerce business development and marketing. Dave is widely regarded as one of the top business coaches for Web 2.0 Entrepreneurs. He is the author of The High Performance Entrepreneur: 12 Essential Strategies to Supercharge Your Startup Business. Dave's work and books have been featured on national television, radio, and print media. To obtain more information on how to make barrels of cash in business and instantly receive my FREE CD and Business Journal go to http://www.DrDaveHaleOnline.com and http://www.buyhiperbusinessmomentum.com

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Collection Development - A Review of Some Related Literature

Some major issues in collection development

Ifidon (1990) focused attention on thirteen university libraries in developing countries and identified their purpose or mission. Books, quick service collections and peripheral materials serve the course work of under graduates. Theses and dissertations, staff publication, audio-visual items for faculty specialists serve post-graduates and researchers. Light reading materials and newspapers enhance personal self development. Special collections also exist to meet the needs of the university in which they are situated. For example, the newspaper collection at Fourah Bay College Library, University of Sierra Leone contains invaluable grey materials which could not be available elsewhere. The newspapers in this collection are collected periodically and sent to the Bindery Department for hard covers. These are eventually shelved as books in the library and the newspaper collection could be traced as far back as 1954.

Bloomfield (1988) outlined what are considered as the major issues in collection development. The six identified issues include the identification of the purpose of mission either of the library itself or its parent body, the formulation of specific library strategies and policies for implementing the collection policy statement, the division of the budget and its consequent problems, monitoring and resource sharing. It is taken for granted that these issues include the assumption that libraries do not have sufficient funds. Formally, the University of Sierra Leone (which currently comprises Fourah Bay College, College of Medicine & Allied Health Sciences and the Institute of Public Administration & Management) budgeted 6% for its libraries but the economic situation from the late 1980s onwards forced this support to be converted to collegiate funding. Unfortunately, the administration often stresses that there are many other competing demands which frustrate the level of support libraries eventually receive.

Gyeszly (1990), Harrell (1990) and Smith (1990) compared and analyzed statistically the collection growth of the Sterling and C. Evans Library, Texas A and M University. Student enrolment, faculty size, materials budget, library funds and expenditures, acquisition of monographs and serials are discussed. Libraries which are actively engaged in collection development are in a dilemma to deal with increasing material prices at a time of decreasing state-supported appropriations. Collection development policies in each department must be carefully written and reviewed to address the needs of different departments. Unfortunately, several libraries do not have well written collection development policies. A corresponding effect is the growth of some subject areas in libraries at the expense of others.

Kelly (1991) focused attention on funding patterns in academic libraries and collection budget allocation methods. It is important to use various techniques in reductions in the budget. Forecasting models and allocation formulae previously used at Laurentian University are detailed. Collection development methods and allocation formulae that work very well in times of increasing budgets should be re-examined when budgets are cut or even remain the same. The author however failed to realize that in Third World University Libraries budgets hardly remain the same. The general trend is a gradual decline which frustrates growth of these libraries.

Collection development policies

Futas (1984) examined a survey conducted of academic and public libraries policies in relation to collection development. Ten academic library collection development policies as well as several selected portions of library policies like goals and objectives, selection, collection maintenance, and intellectual freedom are outlined. Finance is and has always been an issue of concern in the policies. The initial practice of having a policy on what percentage will be spent on what type of material gives place to generalizations and formulae. One implication is that policies do not have to change every year with a new budget. The results of the survey could be safely extended to other academic libraries in the developed nations.

Cabutey-Adodoadgi (1988) focused on the development of library collections in a developing country like Ghana and attributed the poor and unbalanced collections to the inability of libraries to draw up clear cut policies. The ideal however is to evolve a collection development policy that will be based on key factors like library budget, selectivity, user needs and evaluation. Library collections of developing countries, if anything, should reflect balance. Unfortunately, the situation falls far short of the expectations.

Lundu (1989) and Lungu (1989) noted that a fundamental problem in relation to acquisition of scientific literature in Zambia is the lack of clearly-cut collection development policies. Apart from the University of Zambia library, the rest of the libraries they evaluated lack clear-cut collection development policies. The need for collection development becomes paramount if acquired materials should be planned to be relevant to needs and cost effective in relation to limited financial resources available for the book industry in developing countries.

Approval plans

Leonhardt (1990) presented approval plans as one of the most written-about, talked about, misunderstood and oversold aspect of librarianship. The sad realization is that in spite of all the discussions, professional librarians have different views in relation to their name, value and administration. Although they have an inherent value in collection building, they are not a universal remedy for collection development and budget woes. Attempts by librarians to run broad subject-based approval plans without the necessary funds also defeat their purpose. The danger is the less there is to spend, as is the case in most developing countries, the more they leave selection to the vendor.

Likeness (1990) noted that reputable place approval plans have in libraries. Among advantages outlined are option of return, limiting books received from a group of publishers from notifications rather than actual delivery, and blocking out of series or publishers already on standing order. Foreign language materials approval plans are also discussed. While some librarians may not want faculty to be involved in the approval process, many who use such plans involve them in the evaluation of approval books.

Bostic (1991) stressed the important role or gathering plans, in which library materials are supplied according to a predetermined profile and unwanted documents returned, play in the procurement of documents for the library. Advantages include availability of bigger accounts, saving of staff time, a golden opportunity to examine what should be purchased, a sharpening of the library's focus on its informational support mission, allowing existing collections to be strengthened and providing the means of collection evaluation and assessment. These notwithstanding, there are normally gaps in coverage, slow delivery, duplication of material, difficulty in claiming and loss of budget control.

Somers (1991) compared approval plan profiles of two academic libraries, University of Georgia and Tulane University. Although each had vastly different profiles and completely different reactions, they positively view the approval plan as a method of collection development. The individual library profile which determines what is to be sent is at the heart of each plan. In spite of the unique circumstances on each campus, the profile is not only defined wishes but also set expectations.

Technique of evaluating library collections

Ford (1988) noted that in spite of initial opposition to the Aikinson Report which states the time limit stock should be discarded and acquired, the grounds for opposition to some of the proposals are being whittled away. Three choices with regard to the criteria used for identifying materials to be weeded out include category, objective and judgment. Five main types of the so-called 'objective' criteria include usage, obsolescence, age, death and decay. Although most libraries undertake weeding as a result of special circumstances, some do weed systematically and others are about to embark on a systematic programme.

Jones (1988) observed that the management of stock should be clearly seen within the context of the overall management of the organization. Analysis of borrowers and their use of different categories of stock are very important in stock management.

Principles used to determine whether to retain a material include age, popularity, accuracy and relevance of information and sound professional judgment. This is not a proposal to take decision-making from librarians and to give it centrally-based specialists.

Matheson (1988) firmly believed that co-operation and resource sharing are forward steps in the face of higher publishing outputs and declining budgets for collection development. Concentrating on the background to co-operatives initiatives in collection development between major research libraries in Scotland, it is reasonable to conclude that acquisitions budgets fail to retain their purchasing power because of the lack of true co-operation among libraries.

Sizer (1988) noted that academic libraries are under tremendous pressure in demonstrating that they are providing value for money received from their parent bodies. Value for money is concerned with optimizing economy in the acquisition of resources, efficiency in their use and effectiveness in the achievement of objectives. Accountability is not only measures in financial terms. If a library develops an integrated process of planning, resource allocation, budgetary planning and control, it should aim at achieving value for money demonstrated within and outside the university.

Williams (1988) admitted that although much of a librarian's training involves selection, acquisition, storage and exploitation of resources, the ultimate stage, stock relegation, receives relatively little attention. If approached positively, the weeding of materials could lead to an enhancement of user satisfaction as well as an ultimate increase in operational efficiency and effectiveness.

A brief analysis of the Slote method which a spine-mark technique to help individuals to identify materials for weeding is followed by an examination of reasons for justifying its use as an ideal approach of weeding library collections. The above notwithstanding, it is often a very difficult task to meaningfully select potential materials for weeding particularly so when the faculty fails to co-operate with the library in identifying them.

Woodward (1988) reported on the project sponsored by the British National Bibliography Research Fund aimed at designing models to evaluate different kinds of journal provision in the light of possibilities offered by the electronic transmission of journal articles. The Loughborough research clearly showed that a complete switch to electronic article transmission would be disadvantageous to both librarian and user. In brief, overall acquisition costs would be higher, funds would become complex as electronic article provision could not be financed in advance and the library user would suffer loss of quick and easy access of material.

Osburn (1990) identified practices that either impede or are likely to impede freedom of access to information. One such is censorship. Identification is one step to problem solving. Basic principles behind collection management - value and demand, diversity and balance, conservator and innovator are identified. As selection is the heartbeat of collection development, so are criteria for selection important to collection development policies. Allocation and budget justification are plans for action which, though related to policy are separate from it. The importance of collection evaluation is therefore seen in the revision of policy and of financial planning.

Taher (1990) and Kumar (1990) analyzed an American studies collection, taking into consideration growth and use patterns and highlighted the trends and prospects in collection development and evaluation of user needs in India. Two methods, descriptive and analytical are utilized to determine whether or not a collection is balanced. Such a study of collection development and evaluation is of tremendous importance to one's understanding of existing needs to predict the future.

Tjoumas (1990) and Blake (1990) did comparative studies on collection evaluation which provided an inventory of possible techniques developed to assess library holdings. The two approaches which dominated were the impressionistic approach which is extremely subjective and the checklist method which requires a certified list of sources identifying titles essential to support an academic programme. Identifying collection evaluation techniques which are cost effective, easy to implement and accurate would provide librarians with valuable instruments to prepare both internal and external reports.

Wachel (1992) and Shreaves (1992) noted the strong alliance between acquisition and collection development to citing the Iowa libraries as examples. The re-organization at Iowa which shifted the administration of acquisitions from technical services to collection management was a very positive one since it reduced possibilities for conflict inherent in the old administrative structure. Co-operation is the watchword. The action of acquiring confirms a link with collection management and such a relationship is a potential linkage.

Summary

A role of collection development is not only to plan a stock acquisition programme but to make it relevant to immediate and future needs of the users. Born (1993) rightly observed that "a closer co-operation has developed between departments as librarians assess and evaluate library collections to ensure the current and future needs of students and scholars are met" (p.125). It is also evident that most University library collections in developing countries are under-developed as a result of the lack of clearly stated acquisition and collection development policies. The reverse is true of most university libraries in developed countries. Co-operation and resource sharing are two positive steps in the face of declining budgets.

Bibliography

Bloomfield, B.C. (1988). "Collection development: key issues". In S. Corral(ed). Collection

development: options for effective management. London: Taylor Graham. pp.3-16.

Born, K. (1993). "The role of the serials vendor in the collection assessment and evaluation process".

Journal of Library Administration. 19(2), pp.125-138.

Bostic, M.J. (1991). "Approval acquisitions and vendor relations: an overview". The Acquisitions

Librarian. 6(1), pp. 129-144.

Cabutey-Adodoadji, E. (1988). "Collection Development: a hypothetical perspective". Ghana

Library Journal. 6(1), pp.20-30.

Ford, G. (1988). "A review of relegation practice". In In S. Corral(ed). Collection development: options

for effective management. London: Taylor Graham. pp.71-81.

Futas, E. (1984). Library acquisition: policies and procedures. Arizona: Oryx Press.

Gyeszly, S.D. et al. (1990) "Collection growth and evaluation at Texas A and M University, 1978 and

1988: a comparative statistical analysis". Collection Management. 12 (3-4), pp.152-172.

Ifidon, B.I. (1990). Collection development in African university libraries: challenges and frustrations.

Indiana: African Studies Program.

Jones, J.H. (1990). "The Hertfordshire method: an approach to book stock management". In In S.

Corral(ed). Collection development: options for effective management. London: Taylor Graham.

pp.95-101.

Kelly, G.J. (1991). "Using an economic approach to improve budget forecasting techniques, collection,

allocation methods and library budgeting decisions". The Acquisitions Librarian. 5(11), pp.191-213.

Leonhardt, T.W. (1990). "Collection development outside the ARL: a newcomer's perspective".

Collection Management. 12(1-2), pp.11-14.

Likeness, C.S. (1990). "The creative use and acquisitions mechanisms in the college library. Collection

Management. 12(1-2), pp.3-10.

Lundu and Lungu, M.C. & Lungu, C.M.B. (1989). "Acquisition of scientific literature in developing

countries: Zambia". Information Development. 5(2), pp.99-107.

Matheson, A. (1988). "Co-operative approaches in Scotland". In S. Coral (ed). Collection development:

options for effective management. London: Taylor Graham. pp. 119-130.

Osburn, C.B. (1990). "Impact of collection management practices on intellectual freedom". Library

Trends. 39(1-2). pp. 168-182.

Sizer, J. (1988). "Value for money: a framework for development". In S. Coral (ed). Collection

development: options for effective management. London: Taylor Graham. pp. 132-140.

Somers, S.W. (1991). Book selection: principles and practice. London: Library Association Publishing.

Taher, M & Kumar, V.M. (1990). "Collection development and evaluation at the American Research

Centre, Hydembad". Collection Management. 12(1-2), pp. 125-146.

Tjoumas, R. & Blake, V.L.P. (1990). "Counteracting at the divergence between professional

accreditation and the evaluation of library science collections". Collection Management. 12(1-2),

pp.43-59.

Wachel, K. & Shreeves, E. (1992). "An alliance between acquisitions and collection management".

Library Acquisitions: Practice and Theory. 16(1), pp.383-389.

Williams, R. (1988). "Choosing the Slote method of weeding library collections". In S. Coral (ed).

Collection development: options for effective management. London: Taylor Graham. pp. 88-94.

Woodward, H. (1994). "The impact of electronic information on serials collection management". IFLA

Journal. 20(1), pp.35-45.

AUTHOR SIGNATURE
Oliver L.T. Harding, who obtained his GCE O & A Levels from the Sierra Leone Grammar School and the Albert Academy respectively, is currently Senior & Acting Librarian of Fourah Bay College, University of Sierra Leone. He is a part time lecturer at the Institute of Library, Information & Communication Studies (INSLICS), Fourah Bay College and the Extension Programme at the Evangelical College of Theology (T.E.C.T) at Hall Street, Brookfields; Vice President of the Sierra Leone Association of Archivists, Librarians & Information Scientists (SLAALIS); a member of the American Theological Library Association (ATLA) and an associate of the Chartered Institute of Library & Information Professionals (CILIP). His certificates, secular and sacred, include: a certificate and diploma from the Freetown Bible Training Centre; an upper second class B.A. Hons. Degree in Modern History (F.B.C.); a post-graduate diploma from the Institute of Library Studies (INSLIBS, F.B.C) a masters degree from the Institute of Library, Information & Communication Studies (INSLICS, F.B.C.) and a masters degree in Biblical Studies from West Africa Theological Seminary, affiliate of the University of Nigeria, Nsukka, where he won the prize for academic excellence as the Best Graduating Student in 2005. Oliver, a writer, musician and theologian, is married (to Francess) with two children (Olivia & Francis).

Email: oltharding@yahoo.com

Mobile: 232-2233-460-330

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Making Sense of the Digital Divide: Literature Review

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Literature Review Of Serious Mental Disorders

The vast majority of findings in the published literature, apart from the studies of early trauma and early development, are either descriptive, or relate to predisposition, or measure what I  believe are the biological results of the disease process. While description, predisposition and biological change pertain to the disease process, they are not proven causative, and exploration has not led to significant prevention. In contrast, the early traumata identified and demonstrated in this text have exceedingly high correlations with disease processes that can surface 20 to 30 years later, and these early traumata can be identified and eliminated or attenuated, making prevention possible.Nonetheless, I review briefly some of the literature pertaining to serious mental disorders

DESCRIPTIVE PSYCHIATRY:

Over the last century a number of descriptive scientists played an important role in the identification, description and categorization of serious mental disorders. Their work drew interest to the field and provided a framework for future study. Aside from its historical value, their work continues in the form of DSM IV, which is an elaboration and extension of the same efforts to categorize mental illness in a way that facilitates study, research, treatment and prevention.

Noteworthy descriptive scientists of the past include Emil Kraepelin, Eugene Bleuler, Gabriel Langfeld and Kurt Schneider. Emil Kraepelin (1856-1926), a German psychiatrist, categorized seriously disturbed individuals into three main groups: dementia praecox [schizophrenia], manic depressive psychosis, and paranoia. His main contribution to the field was his careful description and categorization of serious mental disorders.

Eugene Bleuler (1857-1939), a Swiss psychiatrist, coined the word schizophrenia, and provided the four "A"s of schizophrenia: Associations (looseness of), Autism, Affective disturbance, and Ambivalence. Gabriel Langfeld described schizophreniform psychosis, and Kurt Schneider gave us first rank and second rank Schneiderian symptoms.

From Kraepelin through DSM IV, classification has been largely descriptive. I believe this is because little has been understood about cause. This leaves the process of categorization in its infancy. We find it more helpful to know the age of origin of a disorder than to know that the disorder meets a certain set of diagnostic criteria, and we think that future studies likely will confirm our impression that medications and regions of brain activity are specific to age of origin-not to current diagnostic criteria.

PSYCHOLOGICAL CAUSATION:

Causation has been addressed in many ways, including psychological attempts at explanation. Sigmund Freud came the closest to the theories presented in my work when he described ego disintegration and regression as a return to a state of primary narcissism. The idea of a return to a time when the ego was not yet developed matches closely my findings. I have developed the concepts further, however, describing original trauma, precipitating trauma, the return to a specific time, age and brain site, and adding the connection between psychological mechanism and biological change.

The psychological explanation of regression, attributing it to a return to an earlier time "because" the patient was more comfortable then, is a misunderstanding of the process. While there is a tendency to adapt or "settle in" to the most comfortable aspect of the regressed state, the reason for the regression is survival, and in the case of schizophrenia and other serious disorders, the survival mechanism is maladaptive. My data correlating early traumata with the later development of serious mental illness bares this out.

The most damaging of all attempts to explain the cause of schizophrenia psychologically was the attempt to blame the parent for his or her interaction with the child. The parent often suffers more than the child because of unwarranted feelings of guilt. The attempt to indite the parent was often presented in a way that was cruel and insensitive to the feelings and the needs of the parent, and this effort brought emotional destruction to lives of countless persons who already were in a state of great emotional despair.

Frieda Fromm-Reichmann (Campbell, 1989) was the first to discuss the "schizophrenogenic mother." While she and others were astute in capturing intricate nuances in the relationship, the significant mistake was to identify the unique interaction between the patient and the mother as the cause instead of the result of the disease process. My work clearly makes this distinction: When the patient returns to the infant mind/brain/reality, everyone treats the patient like an infant, and this includes many mental health professionals.

Family support groups evolved as a means of self preservation, and as they grew in number and gained political influence, researchers retreated from exploration of interpersonal causes. The work of G. W. Brown (1966) had identified a strong mathematical correlation between living at home and recurrent hospitalizations, however, and this sparked a search for elements in the home environment to account for relapse. Expressed emotion in the family, referred to as the "EE" factor, was identified as the culprit, and family therapy to lower the EE factor was proven effective in reducing the relapse rate.

According to my findings, this effort does not go far enough. It is like detonating a small charge next to a combat veteran instead of a large one. The absence of an explosion precipitates no flashback at all. Likewise, a zero EE factor, brought about by a complete separation, is immeasurably better than a low EE factor.

This is not an inditement of the parent or an implication that he or she caused the disorder in any way. Even if the parent is exemplary and behaves in the most ideal way, contact can lead to relapse. The mechanism for this is the same as that between an alcoholic and the bottle. The bottle of scotch may be the finest in the world, but after the subject has "crossed the invisible line" and has become alcohol dependent, one sip returns him to the infant-on-the-bottle mind/brain/reality, and he drinks until the belly is full and passes out.

My sympathy is with family members who often suffer more than the patient, and every effort is made to protect the parent. There may be ways in which families do share in responsibility for the perpetuation of serious disorders, however, and if so, then it is in their best interest to be aware of these factors and to learn what to do.

Two important psychological factors led to the development of family organizations: 1) strong feelings of guilt (even though unwarranted) as parents were targeted unfairly for the cause of schizophrenia, and 2) powerful psychological defense mechanisms of denial and projection, as family members could not tolerate the pain of feeling guilty. These factors influenced the direction of research for nearly two decades, and a strong desire emerged to find a biological cause or an act of God responsible.

To search for the cause of schizophrenia, with the precondition that the result not precipitate feelings of guilt, is not the scientific method. Nonetheless, we have spoken with numerous mental health researchers who have said they would not dare explore possible influences related to family interactions.

Ironically, while my theories identify psychological traumata, they vindicate the parent from blame because they identify accidental traumatic experiences that happen to occur at crucial stages of development, and about which no one is aware.

Dr Clancy McKenzie is a widely acclaimed authority on the understanding of origins, mechanisms and treatment of schizophrenia. He graduated from the University of Michigan School of Medicine in 1962, and then focused his attention on the study of the human mind. Dr. McKenzie has studied the relationship between trauma and Schizophrenia. Through the years he has dedicated himself to the evaluation, analysis and treatment of trauma and its immediate and long-range effects on behavior and mental health. Learn More: http://www.drmckenzie.com and follow his blog: http://www.drmckenzieblog.com

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A Review - Executive Coaching Related Literature Part II

This article provides an overview of "classic" and relevant executive coaching literature pertaining to the plethora of suggested methodologies and core competencies. After reading this chapter, the reader will be left with an understanding as to why confusion exists among practitioners, corporations, and researchers as to what constitutes proper core competencies.

The literature has identified the need for an agreed upon executive coaching core competency skill set (Brotman et al., 1998; Kilburg, 1996a; Wasylyshyn, 2003). Executive coaching, as a skill, is a promising competency in consultants (Kilburg, 1996a). However, the explosive growth of this consultative specialty has been somewhat random, as coaches from various disciplines and backgrounds, with myriad core competencies, identify themselves to organizations as appropriate resources to guide the development of leadership.

Over the past decade, the need for standardized core competencies for executive coaches has skyrocketed (Bluckert, 2005a; Brotman et al., 1998; Edwards, 2003; Joo, 2005; Orenstein, 2006; Peterson, 1996; Saporito, 1996; Turner, 2006). Declining corporate markets over the same period have required corporations to focus on the return on investment (ROI) of monies spent on training and development, especially executive coaching. This new focus on ROI makes it even more important that companies are receiving the best services from coaching providers.

Effron et al. (2005) found that the use of executive coaching separated top corporations from others. Their study found that 47% of the corporations they researched during the writing of Top 20 Companies for Leaders regularly assigned coaches to their HIPO employees. Meanwhile, just 10% of the remaining 300 firms surveyed, made a similar claim. These findings suggest that executive coaching provides a powerful tool to accelerate the performance of successful executives. Additionally, if corporations wish to be and remain in the forefront, it is imperative that executive coaching be among the developmental tools in their training arsenal.

Wasylyshyn (2003) reported that the ever-increasing demands and tempo of business life are escalating, generating a heightened call for integrity, accountability, hands-on involvement, and authentic leadership. With today's business world operating in "real-time", executives are finding it difficult, if not impossible, to ponder, review progress, or climb above their hectic environment to assess or adjust an action plan. The current business environment is worldwide, virtual, and mutually supporting. Wasylyshyn suggests that coaching can provide the executive with a means to develop strategies and to score themselves and their operation with an outside party. In many cases, executive coaching has proved to be on the short list of techniques used for executives to obtain truthful feedback, direction, and the professional uplift they require to plan for the future (Bacon & Spear, 2003; Kampa-Kokesh & Anderson, 2001; Kilburg, 1996a; Orenstein, 2002; Wasylyshyn, 2003).

Dr. Dave Hale is the CEO of DHI-Communications, an international business coaching and training consultancy, specializing in ecommerce business development and marketing. Dave is widely regarded as one of the top business coaches for Web 2.0 Entrepreneurs. He is the author of The High Performance Entrepreneur: 12 Essential Strategies to Supercharge Your Startup Business. Dave's work and books have been featured on national television, radio, and print media. To obtain more information on how to make barrels of cash in business and instantly receive my FREE CD and Business Journal go to http://www.DrDaveHaleOnline.com and http://www.buyhiperbusinessmomentum.com.

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Acquisition of Library Materials, a Review of Some Related Literature

Universal availability of publications

Kemp (1990) lamentably noted that insufficient attention has been given by private organizations, governments or bilateral and international development agencies to the proposal of making document provision a priority in poor countries. Raising the awareness of the importance of reading in particular is very important if they are to assign adequate resources to this vital area of activity.

Line (1990) observed that the battle for availability of publications which has just begun in some countries will hardly be over in this age of information explosion. The concepts of universal availability of publications and universal bibliographic control are attributed to the International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions which were part of the core programme. By comparison with the less developed parts of the world, the developed countries like Britain have a near perfect situation.

In Sierra Leone, the picture is a gloomy one. This could be attributed to the absence of union catalogues and the lack of enforcement of the legal deposit legislation. In its literal sense, the aim of the universal availability of publications is very difficult to achieve as students and researchers fail to obtain books, journals or research reports within the time necessary.

Read (1990) re-echoed the fact that many developing countries are under-supplied with textbooks and other reading materials. In order to buttress this assertion, he cited the situation in Zaire, Madagascar and China. He believed the advent of aid-funded text book projects has ameliorated the situation in developing countries. He took a very positive stand based on studies which showed significant increase in availability.

Universal bibliographic control

Ochola (1984) noted that universal bibliographic control is an aspect of development. A major problem identified was the mission of bibliographic compilation from the priorities drawn up by the colonial administration in Kenya. The Kenya National Bibliography could therefore be seen as a creation and it is in an embryonic stage.

Kwei (1988) gave a more specific treatment when he cited the situation in a developing country like Ghana where a lot of constraints are encountered in the attempt to provide excellent bibliographic services. Among problems identified are the lack of money, shortage of professional librarians, and union catalogues, government and public apathy to bibliographical work, lack of transportation facilities and the developing stage of publishing, printing and the book trade. All is not lost. In order to improve the situation, the bibliographic agency could form part of the national bibliography. Ghanaians must be current and should not be left behind in the forward march to take information to those who need it.

Otike (1989) clearly supported the value of currency of information if bibliographic data is to be fully effective. Any national bibliography which is in arrears cannot hope to meet this challenge. Among problems identified in Kenya are the current state of publishing, enforcement of the legal deposit legislation and the production of the Kenya National Bibliography. These problems can only be solved by the co-operative efforts of information workers, publishers, printers and above all, decision-makers.

Intner (1990) argued that a sound information environment must be created. It is clear that good bibliographic instruction will be advantageous to library users who will be encouraged to see libraries firstly as related to their needs and secondly turn to librarians for advice which will ultimately enrich the library profession. It is against such a background that the librarian in an academic institution should acquire materials for the ultimate development of his collection.

Mahoney (1990), recognizing the importance of availability of information as an essential basis for development stressed the importance of providing national bibliographies especially in developing countries. She argues that up-to-date issues of a national bibliography provide among other things, model records, a selection tool and cultural state of the nation to the country concerned and the world at large. In reality however, coverage of a nation's print is an impossibility in almost all developing countries.

Wilson (1993) warned that people need current information. In other words, maintaining currency is an occupational requirement of librarians and, by extension, all other information professionals. The national bibliography of a developing country should therefore be current in order to be an essential bibliographic tool.

The importance of users

Brindley (1988) identified the needs of users as the primary basis on which to provide or acquire documents and render services. The selection of document, she stresses , must be related to the current needs of users. In other words, the libraries need as a starting point to relate acquisition policies to the importance of meeting current user needs.

Cabutey-Adodoadji's (1988) current perception of collection development is towards user needs. The key environmental factor for collection development is the very high level of the expectation of the public. This reinforces the importance of the needs of potential users. It must be noted that university libraries must make a conscious attempt to meet the research interests of their clientele which include students (undergraduate and postgraduate) and members of the academic staff. Paradoxically, budgets fall, even in some western universities, far short of what would be necessary to cater for the totality of such needs. Research students and their supervisors must be realistic about what they really need to know.

Ifidon (1994), in discussing the role of acquisition in the African University Library, clearly outlined the importance of the different categories of users. Materials must therefore be provided to meet the academic needs of undergraduate and post-graduate students and lecturers if the university library is to fulfill its dynamic mission.

Spiller (1991) observed that the principle of books and, by extension, document provision is invariably concerned with service to a particular set of people or users. The needs of the various users must provide the basis for acquisition. The librarian is thus faced with the daunting task of identifying the needs of the different sets of users.

Debate between librarian and faculty on the selection of library materials

Avafia (1985) noted that in practice responsibility for selection of library materials varies from one university to the other. The librarians at the University of Alexandria have no say in what is acquired for the different faculty libraries and it seems as if the academic staff on the other hand are not very enthusiastic about the selection of books for the central library. Selection of periodicals is done after discussions in faculty meetings. He asserted, after interviewing many university librarians that it is the joint responsibility of librarians and faculty to select materials for the library.

Martula-Millson (1985) commenting on this acrimonious debate studied circulation patterns in the college setting. It is concluded that for history books, faculty and librarians are equally effective as selectors. This conclusion should however not be generalized because it was based on a specific topic.

Sellen (1985) was a bit diplomatic in her presentation of the debate. She clearly examined the works, first of writers who found that librarians selected a greater number of titles that were used and secondly, those who noted that faculty selected more titles that were eventually used. Others noted that there was really no significant difference in the books selected either by faculty or librarians that were eventually used. She ended up not taking sides in the debate.

Schreiner-Robles' (1988) research on the selection and acquisition of library materials in medium-sized academic libraries in the United States should not be generalized. In her estimation, the academic libraries little more than rely on faculty requests for materials in foreign languages. Faculty members thus play a very important role in recommending titles to be purchased.

Vidor (1988) and Futas (1988) extended the investigation when they based their studies on the effectiveness of circulation of library materials. They ended up taking a neutral stand. In their conclusion, they noted that they could not state with any reasonable degree of precision that librarians are appreciably more effective or efficient than their counterparts in the building of a sound library collection in the university.

Ali (1989) presented the background to the development of science and technology in six countries of the Gulf Co-operation Council, namely, Buhrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qutar, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates. The problems faced are two-fold, vendors and geographical distance. It is noted that the distance between the vendors and librarians is a major problem and the author suggest that western publishers should publish Middle East editions of their publications as is sometimes done in India, Hong Kong and elsewhere.

Haider's (1989) presentation of the situation of book selection in the university libraries in Pakistan was a radical departure from the view of others who either sat on the fence or presented a double case. The responsibility for selection, he maintained, rested squarely with the chairmen of the teaching departments. They are the final authorities in relation to selection and recommends titles for their respective subjects.

Hannaford (1990) opined that a good deal of research needs to be done on the debate between the librarian and faculty with regards to book selection. It is fashionable, the author maintains, to malign faculty selection of library materials. Even though he initially presented librarians to be better selectors, he ended up being suspicious of his preconceived notion. He argues that to claim that the former are better selectors will be based more on emotion rather than on evidence.

Strauch (1990) argued that only one side is right in the debate as to why librarians or faculty are better selectors. Librarian selection versus faculty selection, the writer believes, is an old debate which must come to an end. Librarians must be responsible for selection simply because it is they who are responsible, or better still, accountable for what is acquired. In her estimation, the right side is that of the librarian.

Library co-operation with vendors

Lee (1991) argued that acquisition and ultimately collection development efforts can be enriched by co-operation with vendors as libraries often lack either the time or automated systems to effectively and efficiently carry out collection development activities. The wide range of selection services can be of tremendous advantage to the academic librarians but they must be informed customers who not only investigate options but actively participate in designing and using the service.

Racz (1991) and Root (1991) studied the trends affecting vendor selection and attacked the traditional practice of academic libraries of putting more emphasis on monograph acquisition than serial purchases. Librarians are now faced with the daunting task of closely examining factors in relation to the acquisition of serials. Consolidation is introduced to save money, receive better management report and also because librarians are not justified to maintain either a separate overseas vendor or two domestic vendors.

Shirk (1991) queried the nature of librarian-vendor relationships although such relationships are beneficial to both sides. An acquisitions librarian turned vendor, the author suggests that the bid system has not achieved any of its primary purposes and advocates as an alternative the development of a strategic alliance in which each side will eventually share responsibility for good communication. The librarian will ultimately have a stable source for books and the vendor a stable albeit customer base.

Cost of library materials

Obiagwu (1990) asserted that West African libraries are facing unending currency problems and the attendant gross inadequacy of learning materials. He noted that the unavailability of foreign exchange for the acquisition of library materials in Nigeria is not a recent phenomenon. The situation is more critical now than ever as a result of the inadequacy of book votes for the purchase of locally available materials.

Ola-Roberts (1989) reviewed the effects of the devaluation of currency in West Africa and noted that the considerable drop in the value of the Sierra Leonean currency (Leone) during the period reviewed. This economic problem which underlies library acquisitions in Sierra Leone prevails in other countries in West Africa though at varying degrees of intensity. Massive depreciation of local currency, coupled with the increasing cost of periodicals and the dwindling revenues in the book fund, leave the university library in a helpless and hopeless state as far as purchases are concerned.

Nwafor (1990) used the Nigerian experience to illustrate the devastating effects of the economies of third world Countries on their educational systems and university libraries. University education is being rendered meaningless as a result of irrelevant text books and the astronomically high cost of the few available ones. Universities still get the same vote they used to get. People rely on books in the library which are not replenished simply because the university has no money. This is unrealistic when one considers the cost of books and the value of the local currency (naira).

Obiagwu (1990) highlighted the repercussions of the structural adjustment programme on library acquisitions in West Africa. Although most of the illustrations were made from the Nigerian experience, it is far from surprising that the pinch is felt all over West Africa. Inflationary pressures, the reduced book vote and the astronomically devalued local currency all conspire to frustrate the aims of the academic library. This is because the parent institution is under-funded by the appropriate authority. Secondly, the stipulated percentage of the recurrent annual budget an academic library is entitled to is not adhered to. In summary, academic libraries have always suffered cut-backs in book votes.

Schrift (1991) discussed the dynamic relations between librarians, publishers and vendors in a hot climate of expanding needs and contracting resources. Eyebrows are raised under the discussion of publishers, whose unique position should be treated cautiously. They should not be regarded as allies of librarians because benefits from increased efficiencies will not be passed on, nor will journal price hikes stimulated by a weak currency be reversed when the currency gains. Cost of information will hardly be reduced by technological innovation since access will be controlled by the same extortive publishing segment.

Summary

It is evident from the review that there is a book and information famine in developing countries and that the battle for better availability of library materials will continue for a considerable period. University libraries do not have sufficient funds to purchase library materials. In theory, a national bibliography provides coverages of a nation's publications but in practice the bibliography is a poor reflection of its definition.

The role of acquisition and collection development is not only to plan a stock acquisition programme but to make it relevant to immediate and future needs of the users. Born (1993) rightly observed that "a closer co-operation has developed between departments as librarians assess and evaluate library collections to ensure the current and future needs of students and scholars are met" (p.125). The old debate between librarian and faculty on selection of materials must end. The former should be responsible for selection of materials to satisfy the users since s/he will be held accountable for what is required. Devaluation of local currency significantly affects the cost of library materials. Generally, it is taken for granted that University libraries do not have sufficient funds.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Ali, S.N. (1989). "Acquisition of scientific literature in developing countries: Arab-Gulf countries". Information Development. 5(2), pp. 108-14.

Avafia, K.E. (1985). "University libraries: the African scene". In M. Wise (ed). Aspects of librarianship: a collection of writings. London: Mansell Publishing Limited. pp. 1-30.

Born, K. (1993). "The role of the serials vendor in the collection assessment and evaluation process". Journal of Library Administration. 19(2), pp.125-138.

Brindley, L. (1998). "Summing up". In S. Corral(ed). Collection development: options for effective management. London: Taylor Graham. pp.141-151.

Haider, S.J.(1989). "Acquisition and scientific literature in developing countries: Pakistan". Information Development. 5(2), pp.85-98.

Hannaford, E. (1990). "Tilting at windmills: selection in college libraries". Collection Management. 12(1- 2), pp.31-35.

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AUTHOR SIGNATURE
Oliver L.T. Harding, who obtained his GCE O & A Levels from the Sierra Leone Grammar School and the Albert Academy respectively, is currently Senior & Acting Librarian of Fourah Bay College, University of Sierra Leone. He is a part time lecturer at the Institute of Library, Information & Communication Studies (INSLICS), Fourah Bay College and the Extension Programme at the Evangelical College of Theology (T.E.C.T) at Hall Street, Brookfields; Vice President of the Sierra Leone Association of Archivists, Librarians & Information Scientists (SLAALIS); a member of the American Theological Library Association (ATLA) and an associate of the Chartered Institute of Library & Information Professionals (CILIP). His certificates, secular and sacred, include: a certificate and diploma from the Freetown Bible Training Centre; an upper second class B.A. Hons. Degree in Modern History (F.B.C.); a post-graduate diploma from the Institute of Library Studies (INSLIBS, F.B.C) a masters degree from the Institute of Library, Information & Communication Studies (INSLICS, F.B.C.) and a masters degree in Biblical Studies from West Africa Theological Seminary, affiliate of the University of Nigeria, Nsukka, where he won the prize for academic excellence as the Best Graduating Student in 2005. Oliver, a writer, musician and theologian, is married (to Francess) with two children (Olivia & Francis).
Email: oltharding@yahoo.com
Mobile: 232-2233-460-330

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